Southeast Asia

Studies of early Southeast Asia focus largely on its ‘classical states’, when rulers and their entourages from Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (Thailand), Angkor (Cambodia), Bagan (Myanmar), Champa and Dai Viet (Vietnam) clashed, conquered, and intermarried one another over an approximately six-century-long quest for legitimacy and political control. Scholarship on Southeast Asia has long held that such transformations were largely a response to outside intervention and external events, or at least that these occurred in interaction with a broader world system in which Southeast Asians played key roles. As research gathered pace on the prehistory of the region over the past five decades or so, it has become increasingly clear that indigenous Southeast Asian cultures grew in sophistication and complexity over the Iron Age in particular. This has led archaeologists to propose much greater agency in regard to the selective adaptation of incoming Indic beliefs and practices than was previously ...

Interrelationships between peat and water were studied using a hydropedological modelling approach for adjacent relatively intact and degraded peatland in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The easy to observe degree of peat humification provided good guidance for the assignment of more difficult to measure saturated hydraulic conductivities to the acrotelm-catotelm hydrological system. Ideally, to prevent subsidence and fire, groundwater levels should be maintained between 40 cm below and 100 cm above the peat surface. Calculated groundwater levels for different years and for different months within a single year showed that these levels can drop deeper than the critical threshold of 40 cm below the peat surface whilst flooding of more than 100 cm above the surface was also observed. In July 1997, a dry El Niño year, areas for which deep groundwater levels were calculated coincided with areas that were on fire as detected from radar images. The relatively intact peatland showed resilience towards disturbance of its hydrological integrity whereas the degraded peatland was susceptible to fire. Hydropedological modelling identified areas with good restoration potential based on predicted flooding depth and duration. Groundwater level prediction maps can be used in fire hazard warning systems as well as in land utilization and restoration planning. These maps are also attractive tools to move from the dominant uni-sectoral approach in peatland resource management toward a much more promising multi-sectoral approach involving various forestry, agriculture and environment agencies. It is demonstrated that the combination of hydrology and pedology is essential for wise use of valuable but threatened tropical peatland ecosystems.

What are the legacies of violence on gendered patterns of political representation? We examine the long-term effects of a watershed conflict of the twentieth century: the Khmer Rouge genocide, during which 50–70% of Cambodia’s working-age men were killed. Using original data on mass killings and economic and political conditions in Cambodian communes, we find that genocide exposure is positively associated with women’s economic advancement and present-day indicators of women’s representation in local-level elected office. We conduct in-depth, ethnographic interviews with genocide survivors to explore the mechanisms by which violence spurred women into elected office. A crucial finding emerges: In areas that suffered the genocide’s worst killings, widows obtained economic autonomy, providing a template for the economic advancement of women in households maintaining conventional gender roles. The shift in norms regarding the sexual division of labor created intra-communal and intergen...

Despite their other theoretical differences, virtually all scholars of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) agree that the organization's members share an almost religious commitment to the norm of non-intervention. This article disrupts this consensus, arguing that ASEAN repeatedly intervened in Cambodia's internal political conflicts from 1979 to 1999, often with powerful and destructive effects. ASEAN's role in maintaining Khmer Rouge occupancy of Cambodia's UN seat, constructing a new coalition government in exile, manipulating Khmer refugee camps and informing the content of the Cambodian peace process will be explored, before turning to the 'creeping conditionality' for ASEAN membership imposed after the 1997 'coup' in Phnom Penh. The article argues for an analysis recognizing the political nature of intervention, and seeks to explain both the creation of non-intervention norms and specific violations of them as attempts by ASEAN elites to maintain their own illiberal, capitalist regimes against domestic and international political threats.
[the full version is available via my website, https://www.leejones.tk]

The dislocated, deterritorialized discourse produced by repatriates from formerly European colonies has remained overlooked in academic scholarship. One such group is the Eurasian “Indo” community that has its roots in the former Dutch East Indies, today’s Indonesia. This article focuses on Tjalie Robinson, the intellectual leader of this community from the 1950s to the mid-1970s. The son of a Dutch father and a British-Javanese mother, Robinson became the leading voice of the diasporic Indo community in the Netherlands and later also in the United States. His engagement resulted in the foundation of the Indo magazine Tong Tong and the annual Pasar Malam Besar, what was to become the world’s biggest Eurasian festival. Robinson played an essential role in the cultural awareness and self-pride of the eventually global Indo community through his elaboration of a hybrid and transnational identity concept. By placing his focus “tussen twee werelden” (in-between two worlds) and identifying “mixties-schap” (mestizaje) as the essential characteristic of Indo identity, Robinson anticipated debates on hybridity, transnationalism, and creolism that only much later would draw attention from scholars in the field of postcolonial studies. This article highlights Robinson’s pioneering role in framing a deterritorialized hybrid alternative to nationalist essentialism in the postcolonial era.

Thai silver and nielloware display exquisite craftsmanship and design to rival better-known genres of silver from Asia. However, there has to date been little written about this fascinating subject. Examining the history and scope of specified Thai silver and nielloware production dating from the early 19th century to the present, as well as the various forms and designs utilised, this book provides a single reference source on the subject matter for both newcomers and seasoned collectors alike. 

This volume focuses on the various artefacts broadly termed “utensils” and “vessels”, produced for utilitarian purposes, that can still be found for sale in the domestic marketplace, while rarer artefacts, collectibles and commemorative items made for the royal court are also examined: such items were typically of the highest quality made by top artisans. The author considers the role of religious and devotional silver objects in Thailand, as these too have become popular collectibles. Although dating of Asian silverware generally remains problematic, the author provides dating indicators and the first published compilation of Chinese and other marks on silverware found in Thailand.

232 pages, 320 photographs and 2 maps

This work is a beguiling prospect for anyone who has been involved in South Asia or has an interest in the region. The idea of analysing so many distinct insurgencies and counter-insurgency (COIN) campaigns within the covers of a single book is both ambitious and tantalising. Unfortunately, and in spite of occasional good moments, this book provides few of the answers. It has a clunky structure, is peppered with editorial and factual errors and unsupported statements. The British General Templer in Malaya argued that COIN should only be 25% shooting. The remainder should be winning "hearts and minds". Sadly this has all too rarely been the case in South Asia where many of the COIN campaigns have been heavy-handed and brutal. Partly this is a function of capability; effective COIN needs excellent intelligence and highly trained and equipped Special Forces. Yet it is interesting to reflect that two "successful" COIN operations of recent years; the Indian defeat of the Khalistan movement and President Rajapaksa's suppression of the Tamil Tigers owed little to Templer or the proponents of minimum force

Wakaf adalah amalan mulia yang sangat di galakkan oleh Islam. Sebagai salah satu mekanisme kebajikan, wakaf agak unik berbanding dengan sedekah, hadiah dan derma kerana harta yang diwakafkan itu akan di 'tahan' ia itu tidak dihabiskan tetapi sebaliknya apa-apa manfaat atau pulangan daripada penggunaan harta wakaf itu boleh dibelanjankan. Bermula dengan amalan wakaf harta tetap secara langsung, dewasa ini perkembangan wakaf adalah dalam bentuk wakaf tunai dan daripada tunai inilah sebahagiannya dimanfaatkan untuk pembangunan atau pembelian hartanah atau harta lain dan sebahagian pula akan dilaburkan dalam pasaran kewangan. Mengambil iktibar daripada sejarah amalan wakaf di dalam tamaddun Islam serta amalan 'endowmen' di dunia Barat, mekanisme atau kaedah wakaf tunai (aset cair) dalam berbagai aplikasi atau produk perlu dilaksanakan dengan segera. Pembangunan ini dapat dipercepatkan melalui badan khas diperingkat negeri dan kebangsaan dengan mengambil pelajaran daripada perkembangan institusi-institusi zakat. Penulis membuat saranan akan beberapa produk wakaf pendidikan yang berpotensi.

One of the early propositions on the nature of Southeast Asia comes
from George Coedes’ 1968 The Indianized states of Southeast Asia,
which assumes that Southeast Asia and its identity construction
resulted from the region’s passive acceptance of culture from India and China. Such is the case that that the cultural landscape of the region becomes a mere accumulation of external influences. Robert Redfield’s notion of “great and little traditions” that Southeast Asian historians used in examining and understanding Southeast Asian identity and history influenced these ideas. Zeus Salazar’s 1988 The Malayan connection, challenges this framing of Southeast Asian history.

This study aims to evaluate Salazar’s historiographical contributions to
Southeast Asian studies, especially in terms of his efforts to problematize and establish the pan-Malayan identity of insular Southeast Asia. This will be undertaken through a critical review of his works such as Kabihasnang Asyano: Isang pangkasaysayang introduksyon [Asian civilization: A historical introduction] (1990); The Malayan connection (1998); Ang Pilipinong banua/banwa sa mundong Melano-Polynesiano [The Philippines in the Melano-Polynesian world] (2006); and, Asya: Kasaysayan at kabihasnan [Asia: History and civilization] (2010), as well as the works of some scholars in Southeast Asian Studies who have been influenced by Salazar and his works. The research will also show that the nationalist historiography that Salazar advocates emphasizes and highlights the Southeast Asian region’s Austronesian roots as the basis of the region’s cultural identity.

This paper intends to explore the significance of Philippine society, culture, and interactions in today's multicultural and globalized world. As an epistemological approach, it aims to present an informative point of view on the Philippines' multifaceted relationships with other nation-states and cultural communities. Further, the paper seeks to present a preliminary analysis to introduce the two countries - Nepal and the Philippines - and their burgeoning and thriving diplomatic and cultural linkages. Because of the vast geographical, cultural, and political differences between the two countries: Nepal is situated in South Asia and the Philippines in Southeast Asia. The paper clings to the admittance that a limited extensive literature probes into the two nation-states. Nepal and the Philippines are rarely associated with historical parallelism, global trade, diplomatic ties, and migration. In addition to providing macro-perspectives and drawing from the literature of existing Nepal-Philippine relationships, the paper shares in-person narratives of the author during his brief stay in Nepal. Thereby providing a glimpse of how a Filipino perceives the Nepalese worldview. In view of this, the paper aims to expand the existing knowledge on depicting and analyzing the role of Nepal in the Philippines and the significance of the Philippines in Nepal.

Textiles produced by Tai-Kadai peoples are widely admired and much studied, but to date there has been no comparative survey of weaving techniques. Looms and techniques are transmitted between generations in a conservative manner, and have the potential to reveal deep connections between different groups. In this paper I present a survey of loom and patterning techniques, using a mapping approach, combined with comparative analysis similar to that used by linguists. The results trace Tai migration routes, and parallel the findings of linguists in many respects, with some significant differences. They also highlight the important contribution made by Tai-Kadai weavers to the development of the complex patterning systems (drawloom systems) that eventually found their way to the silk weaving industry in Europe.

Buckley C (2017) Looms, Weaving and the Austronesian Expansion. In: Cultural Exchanges in Monsoon Asia:  Andrea Acri , Roger Blench  and Alexandra Landmann (eds), ISEAS, Singapore.

Weaving plays an important role in Asian cultures, both in the practical and symbolic spheres. In this paper I trace the weaving technologies of Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) and Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) to their origins on the Asian mainland. A distinctive suite of technologies, including the body-tensioned loom, warp ikat and the tubular sarong, is found across a wide area. In ISEA it is associated with Austronesian speakers, and remnants of it are found on the mainland amongst Daic and Austroasiatic speakers. Significantly, it is absent on Taiwan, which (together with Hainan and parts of Laos and Vietnam) preserve an older form of the loom. I conclude that the weaving traditions of ISEA came directly from the mainland, rather than via Taiwan.

In the 1990s Southeast Asia became prominent in discussions of globalization. Comparative studies often pointed to the region’s capitalist economies as exemplars of pro-globalization development strategies, countries whose economic and political fortunes have been tied (for better or worse) to a deepening embrace of global trade and investment. The region’s sudden economic reversal in 1997-98 came as a startling irruption into an already contested debate about the post-Cold War ascendancy of global markets and changing state-market relationships around the world. Southeast Asia’s importance for the study of globalization, though, rests on far more than its turbulent economic fortunes in recent years. The region has experienced an unusually close interaction between global dynamics and the stateand nation-building processes that traditionally preoccupy the study of comparative politics in the developing world. Compared to most other regions of the former Third World, its capitalist e...

Maritime disputes in Southeast Asia should be viewed less as a single big basket of problems, and more as smaller individual problems with their own corresponding solutions. There is not a one-size-fits-all approach. And three interrelated policy contexts can help explain why some troubles persist more than others.

THE sugarcane smut fungus, Ustilago scitaminea, first appeared in Australia in the Ord River Irrigation Area (ORIA) in July 1998. The most likely source of this infection was thought to be wind blown spores from Indonesia. Currently, the sugar industries of eastern Australia, Fiji and Papua New Guinea are still free of the disease. However, the risk of a smut incursion into eastern Australia is very high. Australian sugarcane cultivars are currently being screened in Indonesia and the ORIA to obtain smut resistance ratings, and results show that 70% of Australian cultivars are susceptible. As the use of resistant cultivars is the best option for long-term control of smut, a high priority of Australian sugarcane breeding programs is to increase the level of smut resistance in commercial cultivars. However, successful disease control requires an understanding of the level of diversity in the pathogen population. Information on the smut pathogen present in Australia and neighbouring sugar industries will enable plant breeders to select appropriate breeding strategies, including germplasm selection, for increased resistance in Australian sugarcane. The DNA fingerprinting technique of amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) was used to assess genetic variation between isolates of the sugarcane smut fungus. The fungal collection comprised 38 isolates from 13 countries with some isolates collected from the same sugar industry 15 years apart. The technique revealed a low level of variation at the genomic DNA level, but a divergent group of isolates from Southeast Asia was identified. Sugarcane smut spores from this region could show different virulence patterns on Australian cultivars and could constitute another incursion threat to the Australian sugar industry.

In a crisis scenario caused by the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemics, a number of social, political, and economic vulnerabilities, which were coming up in the past few years, are aggravated. This set of vulnerabilities do not limit itself to a local reality, since it exposes some deficiencies at the national and international levels. Regional mechanisms for integration and multilateralism, promoted by international organizations, have been an option used as countries are facing the virus. The exchange of information and data about infected people worldwide, the development of a cure, or even a vaccine have been at the top of international institutions' discussion agenda, and the Southeast Asian countries apparently do the same.

The primary purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between foreign brand name translation and product-related cues—such as physical quality, perceived origin, and brand name—on consumers’ perceived quality, price, and purchase intentions. In translations from alphabetic to character-based languages such as Mandarin, two generic methods of brand name translation are available: (1) direct translation for the meaning of the brand name and (2) phonetic translation for the pronunciation of the brand name. The results from a series of structurally related experiments designed to investigate the effects of brand name translation in a cross-cultural context indicate that for an unknown brand, a phonetic translation may be mandatory, whereas for an existing strong brand name, it may be best to retain the original name.

Between the gangsters, the beautiful girls, the vibrant nightlife and the gigantic scale of the city itself, full of its diverse millions and their struggles, the lurid and colorful world of Bangkok's notorious nightlife is brought to life in Chris Coles' series of Expressionist-style paintings. Broad sweeping lines and strong contrasting colors dominate in these artworks, portraying a chaotic edgy world of colliding intention and misplaced desire - lives out of balance, male-female compulsion, alienation and disassociation. At once beautiful and frightening, this collection of paintings is a vibrant celebration of the pyschedelic Bangkok Night and its many shades of noir...

By 2025, it is estimated that around 5 billion people, out of a total population of around 8 billion, will be living in countries experiencing water stress (using more than 20% of their available resources). Climate change has the potential to impose additional pressures in some regions. This paper describes an assessment of the implications of climate change for global hydrological regimes and water resources. It uses climate change scenarios developed from Hadley Centre climate simulations (HadCM2 and HadCM3), and simulates global river #ows at a spatial resolution of 0.5;0.53 using a macro-scale hydrological model. Changes in national water resources are calculated, including both internally generated runo! and upstream imports, and compared with national water use estimates developed for the United Nations Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World. Although there is variation between scenarios, the results suggest that average annual runo! will increase in high latitudes, in equatorial Africa and Asia, and southeast Asia, and will decrease in mid-latitudes and most subtropical regions. The HadCM3 scenario produces changes in runo! which are often similar to those from the HadCM2 scenarios * but there are important regional di!erences. The rise in temperature associated with climate change leads to a general reduction in the proportion of precipitation falling as snow, and a consequent reduction in many areas in the duration of snow cover. This has implications for the timing of stream#ow in such regions, with a shift from spring snow melt to winter runo!. Under the HadCM2 ensemble mean scenario, the number of people living in countries with water stress would increase by 53 million by 2025 (relative to those who would be a!ected in the absence of climate change). Under the HadCM3 scenario, the number of people living in countries with water stress would rise by 113 million. However, by 2050 there would be a net reduction in populations in stressed countries under HadCM2 (of around 69 million), but an increase of 56 million under HadCM3. The study also showed that di!erent indications of the impact of climate change on water resource stresses could be obtained using di!erent projections of future water use. The paper emphasises the large range between estimates of`impacta, and also discusses the problems associated with the scale of analysis and the de"nition of indices of water resource impact.

The Tonle Sap Lake and floodplains in the heart of Cambodia contain the largest continuous areas of natural wetlands habitats remaining in the Mekong system, while being the largest permanent freshwater body in Southeast Asia. Tonle Sap is a crucially important source for food and living in Cambodia. More than one million people live in the immediate surroundings of the Tonle Sap Lake and wetlands, being the poorest ones in Cambodia, and highly dependent on agriculture and fisheries. An important phosphorus source of the mainly phosphorus limited aquatic ecosystem is the sediment carried by the flood. Mekong Upstream developments, like construction of dams may lead, and has already led, to significant trapping of sediments and nutrients. This would dramatically reduce the productivity of the Tonle Sap system. The 3D mathematical model has been set up for Tonle Sap Lake for simulating water levels and currents, inundation of the floodplain, suspended sediment transport and sedimentation, dissolved oxygen as well as nutrients and algal growth (chlorophyll-a) to understand the ecosystem processes and the possible changes in it due to the upstream development.

Forested tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia store at least 42 000 Million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Human activity and climate change threatens the stability of this large pool, which has been decreasing rapidly over the last few decades owing to deforestation, drainage and fire. In this paper we estimate the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions resulting from drainage of lowland tropical peatland for agricultural and forestry development which dominates the perturbation of the carbon balance in the region. Present and future emissions from drained peatlands are quantified using data on peatland extent and peat thickness, present and projected land use, water management practices and decomposition rates. Of the 27.1 Million hectares (Mha) of peatland in Southeast Asia, 12.9 Mha had been deforested and mostly drained by 2006. This latter area is increasing rapidly because of increasing land development pressures. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emission caused by decomposition of drained peatlands was between 355 Mt y −1 and 855 Mt y −1 in 2006 of which 82% came from Indonesia, largely Sumatra and Kalimantan. At a global scale, CO 2 emission from peatland drainage in Southeast Asia is contributing the equivalent of 1.3% to 3.1% of current global CO 2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel. If current peatland development and management practices continue, these emissions are predicted to continue for decades. This warrants inclusion of Correspondence to: A. Hooijer ([email protected]) tropical peatland CO 2 emissions in global greenhouse gas emission calculations and climate mitigation policies. Uncertainties in emission calculations are discussed and research needs for improved estimates are identified.

The purpose of this article is to examine the personal, academic, and professional experiences of five Japanese university students who did short-term academic internships in three southeast Asian nations. Since students in Japan often associate international opportunities with inner-circle English-speaking countries (e.g. the United States of America or the United Kingdom), this article highlights the perceived benefits of choosing Southeast Asia as an educational destination. In limited published studies, researchers have revealed that Japanese students may gravitate towards Southeast Asia for multilingual language learning opportunities, lower perceived discrimination, and reduced financial costs. This article provides additional insight into the discerned advantages and disadvantages. Data for this qualitative exploratory study include weekly written reflections from students who were in southeast Asian countries from late 2018 to early 2019, followed by a focus group and individual questionnaires in the months following the participants’ return to Japan.  Based on thematic analysis of self-reporting, results suggest that the participants found value in their experiences due to the (a) proximity and costs involved, (b) comfort with using a non-native variety of English, and (c) development of intercultural competences and soft skills.  More specifically, participants felt that their experiences were less financially burdensome on parents, compared to similar experiences in inner-circle destinations. Also, participants reported feeling comfortable using English as a lingua franca, despite communicating in lower-context environments. This, in turn, contributed to the development of their adaptation, negotiation, and communicative skills. If higher education stakeholders and recruiters can better promote the educational experiences of Japanese university students in Southeast Asia, such as those featured in this article, then it is possible that access and participation may increase in the future.

Implementasi algoritma Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) pada robot untuk pencarian sumber kebocoran gas memerlukan informasi posisi dari setiap robot. Penggunaan kamera memungkinkan untuk mendapatkan informasi posisi robot yang lebih absolut dan akurat dibandingkan dengan perangkat pencari informasi posisi lainnya. Paper ini memaparkan suatu metode yang akan digunakan untuk mencari posisi robot. Metode yang diajukan menggunakan beberapa teknik pengolahan citra, seperti, Color Filtering dan Blobs Filtering guna mengenali dan memperoleh posisi robot. Berdasarkan eksperimen yang telah dilakukan, metode ini mampu menentukan posisi absolut robot sehingga ia dapat menyediakan informasi posisi robot dalam implementasi algoritma PSO.

Sustainable construction is a way for the building industry to move towards achieving sustainable development, taking into account environmental, socio- economic and cultural issues. Differing approaches and differing economic markets lead to different priorities. This paper presents the construction scenario of Southeast Asia and the developments in sustainable construction taking place in the region. Barriers to the implementation of sustainable

A PCR procedure for the discrimination of Burkholderia mallei and Burkholderia pseudomallei was developed. It is based on the nucleotide difference T 2143 C (T versus C at position 2143) between B. mallei and B. pseudomallei detected in the 23S rDNA sequences. In comparison with conventional methods the procedure allows more rapid identification at reduced risk for infection of laboratory personnel.

The scientific literature has documented the growing risks of flooding posed for Asia’s coastal cities by the combination of climate change, as reflected in sea level rise and intensified storms and storm surges, and ongoing urban growth in low-lying coastal zones. These issues were already elaborated in the 2007 IPCC (IPCC, 2007) reports but recent studies indicate that climate change, sea level rise and the sinking of the deltas on which most Asian mega urban regions have arisen, are all occurring at much faster rates than earlier projected and therefore pose even greater risks than previously indicated. Global warming appears to be accelerating and may increase to 4° C or more by the end of this century, twice the earlier IPCC projections. The sea level is now expected to rise by one meter or more by 2100; two or three times the earlier projections. The recent typhoons and rains striking Southeast Asia have been the most intense in decades as would be expected as a result of glob...

Malaysia’s fundamentals remain strong and the country is expected to grow and increase its appeal to international investors. In spite of recent regional turmoil prompted by China’s economic rebalancing, the end of the commodity supercycle and local political upheavals, Malaysia is poised to strengthen its leadership position within Southeast Asia.

A major economic player in the ASEAN region, Malaysia is a contributing force in the evolution of local, regional and global trade, and its successes are built on strong macro-economic foundations. A well-defined economic programme will ensure that Malaysia’s GDP will grow by 4-5% this year and is on track to achieve developed country status in the next few years, as outlined in the 11th Five-Year Plan. International rankings, ratings and various macroeconomic data provide a clear understanding of why Malaysia’s structural strengths have largely overcome recurring weaknesses and recent setbacks.

Internationally, and especially beyond the immediate arena of Southeast Asia, Malaysia has succeeded in establishing a number of strong economic relationships through shrewd diplomatic initiatives – a political balancing act that has served to tie in Malaysia's fortunes with nations such as China, the US, France and the collective members of ASEAN. Kuala Lumpur is a key member of the Trans-Pacific Partnership and has led the efforts behind the establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community, the seventh largest economy in the world with a combined GDP of $2.4 trillion.

Em um cenário de crise, provocado pela pandemia de Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), agravaram-se uma série de vulnerabilidades sociais, políticas e econômicas que já vinham despontando nos últimos anos. Este conjunto de vulnerabilidades não se limitou à dinâmica local, na medida em que expôs carências a nível nacional e internacional. Mecanismos regionais de integração e o multilateralismo promovido por organizações internacionais têm sido uma alternativa utilizada no processo de enfrentamento do vírus. A troca de informações e dados sobre o quadro de infectados, o desenvolvimento de possíveis tratamentos e vacinas ganhou destaque nas relações estabelecidas por meio destas instituições, e os países do Sudeste Asiático também avançaram nesse sentido.