Sea Level

The great ice sheets covering Antarctica and Greenland were, traditionally, believed to take thousands of years to respond to external forcing. Recent observations suggest, however, that major changes in the dynamics of parts of the ice sheets are taking place over timescales of years. These changes were not predicted by numerical models, and the underlying cause(s) remains uncertain. It has been suggested that regional oceanic and/or atmospheric warming are responsible but separating the influence and importance of these two forcings has not been possible. In most cases, the role of atmospheric versus oceanic control remains uncertain. Here, we review the observations of rapid change and discuss the possible mechanisms, in the light of advances in numerical modelling and our understanding of the processes that may be responsible.

Hydrochemical data for meteoric waters of the uplifted carbonate platform of northern Guam show that, contrary to recent models of lowstand diagenesis, phreatic dissolution is active beneath a 60-180m thick vadose zone. Overland flow during high intensity rainfall events is focussed into surface detention ponds, which drain very rapidly via the epikarst and vertical fissures to the freshwater lens. We estimate that these waters contribute 13% of dissolved calcium in samples from pumping wells but may also deliver aggressive and/or organic-rich waters to the lens. Fast-flow vadose waters mix with lens-top waters to form fresher cap that discharges rapidly coastwards via cavernous porosity. Slower vadose percolation, sampled as cave drips, equilibrates with bedrock within the upper 30 m of the vadose zone, accounting for some 46% of dissolved calcium in the lens waters. The remaining 41% calcium is generated by net dissolution within the lens.

Several sieve tube-restricted bacteria are associated with HLB, worldwide. In Africa, only Candidatus Liberibacter africanus (Laf) has been found to be associated with HLB, and the insect vector is the African citrus psyllid, Trioza erytreae (see 2 for references on discovery, characterization, and detection of rutaceous liberibacters). Both the African liberibacter and the psyllid-vector are heat sensitive, as temperatures of 32°C and above are detrimental. In addition to being heat sensitive, the vector is also affected by dry conditions. These reasons explain why the disease in Africa is encountered most severely in cool areas, namely at altitudes at or above 600 m and where relative humidity rarely falls below 25%, while at lower altitudes the disease is less severe, and practically absent below 200m. Only in the Cape Town region, at the most southern tip of Africa, the disease occurs at sea level temperatures because there, the southern latitude compensates for lack of altitude. In the Cape Town province, an arborescent Rutaceae, Calodendron capensis, or Cape chestnut tree, showed leaves with blotchy mottle and was found to be infected with Candidatus Liberibacter africanus subsp. capensis. The subspecies has not (yet) been found in citrus. It has also been detected in apparently symptomless chestnut trees (14). Until recently, Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Las) was the only liberibacter found to be associated with HLB in Asia. In 2008, Candidatus Liberibacter americanus (Lam) has been reported in one of 97 citrus leaf samples from eight provinces of southern China, Las being present in the 96 other samples (13). If this report is confirmed, it would be the first time that Lam is detected out of Brazil. The insect vector in Asia is Diaphorina citri, the Asian citrus psyllid, an insect more heat tolerant than T.erytreae. Asian HLB is heat tolerant, and involves Las, not yet affected at 35°C, while Lam, like Laf, is heat sensitive (11). The disease occurs in hot, dry oases of southwestern Saudi Arabia. In Florida and Cuba, HLB was recognized in 2005 and 2006, respectively, and is of the classic Asian type, with Las as the liberibacter and D. citri as the psyllid vector. A third liberibacter species has been identified in 2004 in São Paulo State (SPS), Brazil: Candidatus Liberibacter americanus (Lam). However, Las is also present. In 2004, Lam was widely predominant, Las being detected only in very few sweet orange trees. By 2008, the situation has reversed, as newly affected trees are now found to be more frequently infected with Las than with Lam. Both Lam and Las are transmitted by the Asian psyllid, present in SPS since the 1940s. Lam in SPS, like Laf in South Africa, is heat sensitive, while Las is heat tolerant. Also, the titres of Lam in sweet orange trees are lower than those of Las, and might result in lower insect-transmission efficiency (12). The differences between Lam and Las may explain the decrease of Lam in favour of Las in SPS. Surprisingly, in 2007, a phytoplasma of group 16SrIX (Candidatus Phytoplasma phoenicium group), closely related to the pigeon pea witches' broom phytoplasma (99% 16SrDNA sequence identity) has been found associated with HLB in SPS (16). Phytoplasmas are

A multi-proxy study of an offshore core in Saldanha Bay (South Africa) provides new insights into fluvial deposition, ecosystems, phytogeography and sea-level history during the late Paleogene-early Neogene. Offshore seismic data reveal bedrock topography, and provide evidence of relative sea levels as low as-100 m during the Oligocene. 3D landscape reconstruction reveals hills, plains and an anastomosing river system. A Chattian or early Miocene age for the sediments is inferred from dinoflagellate taxa Distatodinium craterum, Chiropteridium lobospinosum, Homotryblium plectilum and Impagidinium paradoxum. The subtropical forest revealed by palynology includes lianas and vines, evergreen trees, palms and ferns, implying higher water availability than today, probably reduced seasonal drought and stronger summer rainfall. From topography, sedimentology and palynology we reconstruct Podocarpaceae-dominated forests, Proto-Fynbos, and swamp/riparian forests with palms and other angiosperms. Rhizophoraceae present the first South African evidence of Palaeogene/Neogene mangroves. Subtropical woodland-thicket with Combretaceae and Brachystegia (Peregrinipollis nigericus) probably developed on coastal plains. Some of the last remaining Gondwana elements on the sub-continent, e.g., Araucariaceae, are recorded. Charred particles signal fires prior to the onset of summer dry climate at the Cape. Marine and terrestrial palynomorphs, together with organic and inorganic geochemical proxy data, suggest a gradual glacio-eustatic transgression. The data shed light on Southern Hemisphere biogeography and regional climatic conditions at the Palaeogene-Neogene transition. The proliferation of the vegetation is partly ascribed to changes in South Atlantic oceanographic circulation, linked to the closure of the Central American Seaway and the onset of the Benguela Current ~14 Ma.

Hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), red blood cells (RBCs), mean cell volume (MCV), and mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were measured by a single operator in a single laboratory by means of an electronic particle counter in 942 healthy adults (49 1 females and 45 1 males) residing at five altitudes: 0, 1000, 1860, 2220, and 2670 meters above sea level. The subjects were carefully screened clinically, and subjects with low transferrin saturation (< 15%) were excluded. In both sexes there was a differential behavior as a function of altitude, of Hb and PCV on the one hand, and number of RBCs on the other. The findings suggest the presence of two sequential mechanisms of adaptation t o progressively lower atmosphere oxygen pressure: One operating from sea level to 1860 meters, which leads t o a progressively increasing number of relatively microcytic RBC; and a second onefrom 1860 to 2670 metersin which there is an increased but constant number of progressively more normocytic RBC, so that a simplistic model of equal magnitude increases in the three parameters and is seen at 2670 meters, but not at the intermediate altitudes. The middle group's comparativity, essential t o these interpretations, apparently was achieved with regard to time elapsed between sampling and testing and with regard to the people integrating the groups.

The results of a palaeoecological, biostratigraphical and palaeobiogeographical analysis of Jurassic ostracods from southern Tunisia are presented. The shallow to marginal marine deposits of Bajocian-Bathonian (Krachoua and Techout formations) and Callovian-?Oxfordian age (Tataouine Formation), which accumulated under predominantly warm humid climatic conditions, yielded diverse ostracod faunas from limnic, brackish and marine environments which have been analysed statistically. A qualitative cluster analysis yielded fourteen associations and two assemblages which are characterised by different percentages of marine, brackish and freshwater species. The distribution of the associations in the Middle Jurassic reflects temporal and spatial salinity gradients which are interpreted to reflect climatic variations (humid arid) and global eustatic sea level changes. In the Callovian the ostracods and macrofaunas probably also reflect minor relative sea level changes. In accordance with other biostratigraphical data the ostracods support a Bajocian~Bathonian age for the upper Krachoua and the lower Techout formations, and a Callovian age for the lower Tataouine Formation. The palaeobiogeographical relationships suggest faunal exchange between southern Tunisia and Europe (southern France, Sardinia, England) in the Bajocian-Bathonian, and an isolation of the south Tunisian ostracod faunas from the European faunas in the Callovian, probably due to the deepening of the central Western Tethys. Predominantly in the Bajocian-Bathonian but also in the Callovian brackish conditions resulted in an endemicity of the ostracod faunas. As a consequence of the eustatic sea level rise in the Callovian species from the eastern North Gondwana shelf (Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia), respectively, the Ethiopian Province, invaded southern Tunisia. Palaeobiogeographically the ostracods from southern Tunisia are intermediate between the ostracods from the Arabic Northeast African region and Northwest Africa (Morocco).

A simple climate model has been developed to investigate the existence of the small ice cap instability in the Southern Hemisphere. The model consists of four coupled components: an atmospheric energy balance model, a thermodynamic snow-sea ice model, an oceanic mixed layer model and a terrestrial ice model. Results from a series of experiments involving different degrees of coupling in the model show that the instability appears only in those cases when an explicit representation of the Antarctic ice sheet is not included in the model. In order to determine which physical processes in the ice sheet model lead to a stabilization of the system we have conducted several sensitivity experiments in each of which a given ice sheet process has been removed from the control formulation of the model. Results from these experiments suggest that the feedback between the elevation of the ice sheet and the snow accumulation-ice ablation balance is responsible for the disappearance of the small ice cap instability in our simulation. In the model, the mass balance of the ice sheet depends on the air temperature at sea level corrected for altitude and it is, therefore, a function of surface elevation. This altitudemass balance feedback effectively decouples the location of the ice edge from any specific sea level isotherm, thus decreasing the model sensitivity to the albedotemperature feedback, which is responsible for the appearance of the instability. It is also shown that M. A. Morales Maqueda ()) A

The Vema Transverse Ridge (VTR) is a prominent, long and narrow topographic anomaly that runs for over 300 km along a sea floor spreading flow line south of the Vema transform at 118 N in the Atlantic. It rises abruptly about 140 km from the axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) in~10 Myr old crust and runs continuously up to~25 Myr old crust. It reaches over 3 km above the predicted lithospheric thermal contraction level. It is absent in crust younger than 10 Myr; thus, the uplift of the VTR must have ended roughly 10 Ma. The VTR is interpreted as the exposed edge of a flexured and uplifted slab of oceanic lithosphere that was generated at an 80 km long MAR segment. Based on satellite gravimetry imagery this MAR segment was born roughly 50 Ma and increased its length at an average rate of 1.6 mm/yr. Multibeam data show that the MAR-parallel sea floor fabric south of the VTR shifts its orientation by 58 to 108 clockwise in~11-12 Myr old crust, indicating a change at that time of the orientation of the MAR axis and of the position of the Euler rotation pole. This change caused extension normal to the transform, followed between 12 and 10 Ma by flexure of the edge of the lithospheric slab, uplift of the VTR at a rate of 2 to 4 mm/yr, and exposure of a lithospheric section (Vema Lithospheric Section or VLS) at the northern edge of the slab, parallel to the Vema transform. Ages of pelagic carbonates encrusting ultramafic rocks sampled at the base of the VLS at different distances from the MAR axis suggest that the entire VTR rose vertically as a single block within the active transform offset. A 50 km long portion of the crest of the VTR rose above sea level, subsided, was truncated at sea level and covered by a carbonate platform. Subaerial and submarine erosion has gradually removed material from the top of the VTR and has modified its slopes. Spreading half rate of the crust south of the transform decreased from 17.2 mm/yr between 26 and 19 Ma to~16.9 mm/yr between 19 and~10 Ma, to~13.6 mm/yr from 10 Ma to present. The slowing down of spreading occurred close in time to the change in ridge/transform geometry, suggesting that the two events are related. A numerical model relates lithospheric flexure to extension normal to the transform, suggesting that the extent of the uplift depends on the thickness of the brittle layer, consistent with the observed greater uplift of the older lithosphere along the VTR.

We have analyzed 33 Pliocene bulk sediment samples from Ocean Drilling Program Site 1085 in the Cape Basin, located offshore of western Africa in the Angola^Benguela Current system, for 17 major and trace elements, and interpreted their associations and temporal variations in the context of an allied data set of CaCO 3 , opal, and C org. We base our interpretations on elemental ratios, accumulation rates, inter-element correlations, and several multi-element statistical techniques. On the basis of qualitative assessment of downhole changes in the distributions of P and Ba, utilized as proxies of export production, we conclude that highs in bulk and biogenic accumulation that occur at 3.2 Ma, 3.0 Ma, 2.4 Ma, and 2.25 Ma were caused by increases in export production as well as terrigenous flux, and record a greater sequestering of organic matter during these time periods. Studies of refractory elements and other indicator proxies (SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , Fe 2 O 3 , MgO, V, Cr, Sr, and Zr) strongly suggest that the terrigenous component of the bulk sediment is composed of two compositional end-members, one being`basaltic' in composition and the other similar to an`average shale'. The basaltic end-member comprises approximately 10^15% of the total bulk sediment and its presence is consistent with the local geology of source material in the drainage basin of the nearby Orange River. The increase in bulk accumulation at 2.4 Ma appears to reflect a greater relative increase in basaltic input than the relative increase in shale-type input. Although studies such as this cannot precisely identify the transport mechanisms of the different terrigenous components, these results are most consistent with variations in sea level (and associated changes in shelf geometry and fluvial input) being responsible for the changing depositional conditions along the Angolan Margin during this time period.

The bio-and chronostratigraphy of the Eemian interglacial (marine isotope substage 5e) and an Early Weichselian glaciation (5d-a) established from representative and detailed sequences can be correlated with the deep-sea oxygen isotope stratigraphy. ice-core data, sea-level fluctuations and coupled ice sheet-climate models. Biostratigraphic sequences from Fennoscandian key sections are correlated with reference sequences from Estonia and from sections located near 01 beyond the margins of the last glaciation. Organic sediments previously attributed to Early and Middle Weichselian interstadial periods in Finland are argued to be redeposited and mixed older (last interglacial) material. Pollen and diatom spectra of the undisturbed materials suggest that the Eemian climatic optimum was followed by a continuously cooling climate and a regressive marine level. If only undisturbed sequences are considered. the major climatic tluctuations of the Early Weichselian, apparent in Central and Western Europe, are not apparent in the sequences from the central part of the glaciated terrain. Instead, some sequences are truncated by sediments indicating approaching ice sheets soon after the interglacial. This may imply that the ice sheet grew over Finland during the first Early Weichselian stadial. The prcscrvation of the interglacial beds and the lack of younger non-glacial sediments support the interpretation that the area remained ice-covered until the final deglaciation. During the Early Weichselian. the Norwegian coast was probably occasionally ice free, similar to the coastal zone of Greenland today. The authors' interpretation of the Fennoscandian organic deposits of the last glaciation may also explain I;imilar observations from the central parts of the Laurentide ice sheet. 0 19% Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved QSR FIN-02400

The late Quaternary sedimentary history of the continental margin off Portugal was reconstructed from sediment gravity cores. Hemipelagic sedimentation (lithofacies A) was dominant during glacial times. It was interrupted periodically by deposition of shelf-and upper-slope-derived silty and sandy terrigenous material by dilute turbidity currents (lithofacies B and C), ice-rafted debris during distinct periods of breakdown of North Atlantic ice sheets (Heinrich events, lithofacies D) and large amounts of pteropods (lithofacies F). Settling of biogenic particulate material (lithofacies E) prevailed during the Holocene, when sea level and sea surface temperatures were high and terrigenous shelf-input was low.

The astronomical tidal elevations and surge heights have been produced from a one decade (1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005) sea level daily records at Alexandria. The tidal harmonic constituents had been constructed using the T_TIDE program. Surge elevations had been calculated by subtracting the astronomical height from the observed sea level. The statistical analysis for the previously obtained surge heights is described and represented in this paper. The minimum calculated surge height during this period is 14.64 cm, while the maximum is 87.15 cm. This means a decadal height range of 72.51 cm. The seasonal occurrence over the period of investigation has been discussed. Results have revealed that the summer events are on the top of occurrence with 930 events, followed by the winter with 913 events. Spring and autumn have 910 and 900 events, respectively, over the investigated period.

The western boundary of the tropical Pacific is not continuous, and leakage of low-frequency energy from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean is possible. At low frequencies, equatorial Kelvin and Rossby waves have very large east-west scales compared with the east-west scale of the land masses in the region. Consequently, these land masses may be treated as islands that are infinitesimally thin in the east-west direction. By generalizing previous theory for a single island, the leakage and multiple reflection of low-frequency energy through the seven major "islands" forming the boundary of the western Pacific can be studied. The results obtained depend on continuity of mass and large-scale balances and not on the details of nonlinear and/or frictional flow near island eastern boundaries. The major results are as follows: (1) When a mode 1 low-frequency Rossby wave is reflected at the discontinuous western Pacific boundary, the eastward reflected Kelvin wave energy flux is about one third of the incoming energy flux, or about two thirds of that expected for a solid meridional wall. In other words, the reflected Kelvin wave amplitude is 83% of that which would be reflected from a solid meridional wall. The reflection mainly occurs from the Indonesia/Borneo/Asia land mass and very little energy gets into the Indian Ocean. (2) Sea levels in the western equatorial Pacific and on the western boundaries of the major western Pacific land masses should be in phase and of a similar amplitude. In particular, in-phase interannual sea levels should occur along Australia's western coast and be highly correlated with sea levels in the western equatorial Pacific. Sea level data at Truk Island and on Australia's western coastline confirm this prediction. (3) The interannual exchange of water between the Pacific and Indian oceans due to interannual oscillations in the Pacific is about 6 Sv (1 Sv-10 6 m 3 s-•), is highly correlated with El Nifio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, and bears definite phase relationships to sea level stations at locations in the western Pacific. For example, for a high sea level at Darwin, the transport is westward from the Pacific Ocean into the Indian Ocean. it seems that interannual transport may be approximately monitored using coastal sea level. (4) Strong narrow low-frequency currents are predicted to occur westward of some island tips. (5) Interannual indian Ocean Kelvin wave signals are largely blocked at the Indonesia/Borneo/Asia land mass. (6) In terms of net transport, reflection, and transmission properties, the seven island Pacific western boundary can be reduced to a simpler two-island problem, in which one island is the Indonesia/Borneo/Asia land mass and the other New Guinea/Australia. (7) The comparatively small Halmahera Sea between Halmahera and New Guinea is dynamically important. Closing this sea for the incident first meridional mode Rossby wave case reduces the interannual transport between the Pacific and Indian Oceans by 40%.

Malaria remains one of the greatest killers of human beings, particularly in the developing world. The World Health Organization has estimated that over one million cases of Malaria are reported each year, with more than 80% of these found in Sub-Saharan Africa. The anopheline mosquito transmits malaria, and breeds in areas of shallow surface water that are suitable to the mosquito and parasite development. These environmental factors can be detected with satellite imagery, which provide high spatial and temporal coverage of most of the earth's surface. The combined use of remote sensing and GIS provides a strong tool for monitoring environmental conditions that are conducive to malaria, and mapping the disease risk to human populations.

Acute exposure to moderate (552Torr, 73.6kPa) and high (428Torr, 57.1 kPa) altitude resulted in a decrease in the thermosensitivity of arm, chest and thigh sweating during light and moderate exercise. This effect was not accompanied by any change in the esophageal temperature threshold for sweating onset at any of the three sites. 2. Whole body wettedness was decreased an average of 23% at high altitude during light (40°/. ~O 2 peak) and moderate (60% ~O2 peak) exercise. There was no change in mean weighted skin temperature at either moderate or high altitude.

Detailed d13C stratigraphies have been published recently for several Cenomanian-Turonian pelagic sections of southern England, and the Lower Saxony basin of Germany. The observed changes in the d13C record provide a useful tool for high-resolution stratigraphic correlation, and are used here to create a composite Cenomanian-Turonian d13C curve in a time-related framework. A best fit curve to 673 carbon isotope data is provided using the LOWESS regression scatterplot smoother. The long-term trend of the smoothed composite d13C profile varies on time scales of 106 years, and shows stable d13C values through the Lower Cenomanian, an increase in the Middle and Upper Cenomanian, with a major positive excursion around the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary, and a decrease through the Lower and Middle Turonian. Short-term fluctuations vary on time scales of 105 years, and dominated the d13C signal in the higher Middle and Upper Turonian. Changes of the Cenomanian-Turonian d13C record have commonly been explained by variations in the organic carbon flux to the sedimentary reservoir, in response to eustatic sea-level change. However, mass balance consideration suggests also an influence of carbonate production and burial rate on the d13C signal. Enhanced inorganic carbon burial increased the ratio of the inorganic to organic carbon fluxes and shifted the 13C/12C ratio to more negative values. This pattern may be observed in the Early and Middle Turonian d13C long-term record, and correlates with the spatial expansion of pelagic carbonate deposits in epicontinental seas. Short-term d13C variations could be either a directly response to short-term sea-level changes, reflecting local conditions in the European epicontinental sea, or could represent changes in oceanic 12C storage in response to the varying intensity of thermohaline circulation.

The scientific literature has documented the growing risks of flooding posed for Asia’s coastal cities by the combination of climate change, as reflected in sea level rise and intensified storms and storm surges, and ongoing urban growth in low-lying coastal zones. These issues were already elaborated in the 2007 IPCC (IPCC, 2007) reports but recent studies indicate that climate change, sea level rise and the sinking of the deltas on which most Asian mega urban regions have arisen, are all occurring at much faster rates than earlier projected and therefore pose even greater risks than previously indicated. Global warming appears to be accelerating and may increase to 4° C or more by the end of this century, twice the earlier IPCC projections. The sea level is now expected to rise by one meter or more by 2100; two or three times the earlier projections. The recent typhoons and rains striking Southeast Asia have been the most intense in decades as would be expected as a result of glob...

Using radioactive iodine, the effect of 1 month's yogic exercises has been investigated on the thyroid function of subjects resident at sea level (SL) specially after their exposure to high altitude (HA). The results have been compared with a group of SL subjects who underwent physical training (PT) exercises for the same duration. Ten healthy male volunteers in the age range of 20-30 years were used as test subjects in this study with each serving as his own control. The subjects were randomly divided into two groups of 5 each. One group practised hatha yogic exercises, while the other group performed the regular PT exercises. The thyroidal accumulation and release of radioactive iodine have been measured in each of the subjects of both groups before and after 1 month of their respective exercises at SL. One month of yogic exercises at SL has been observed to cause a significant reduction in the trans-thyroidal availability of radioiodine. The thyroid radioactivity in this group of subjects was always below normal levels with the exception of two peaks of radioactive iodine uptake, when the levels of radioactivity in the thyroid were similar to the control values of pre-yogic exercises. The release of radiolabel at 24-48 h was significantly increased after yogic exercises. In contrast, the subjects performing PT exercises for the same duration at SL showed significant thyroid uptake of radioactive iodine at 24 h. Subsequently their 131I uptake continued to rise slowly until 72 h without any demonstrable thyroidal release of radiolabel. This indicated that increased thyroid activity was induced by conventional PT exercise. Exposure of SL residents to HA irrespective of their exercise regime altered the thyroidal handling of radioiodine. Thyroidal concentrations of freshly S. B. Rawal (1~) • administered radioiodine at early and late sampling intervals were very high in both of the groups, especially the yogics, after their return to SL from HA. Possible mechanisms of the observed changes have been discussed.

After more than 25 years of research on altitude training (AT) there is no consensus regarding either the training programme at altitude or the effects of AT on performance at sea level. Based on a review of the research work on AT, we investigated combined base training and interval training at moderate altitude and compared immediate and delayed effects on sea level performance with those following similar sea level training (SLT). The altitude group (AG, 10 male amateur runners) trained at 2315 m (natural altitude) and the sea level group (SLG, 12 male amateur runners) at 187 m. Both groups performed 7 days of base training (running on a trail) lasting between 60 and 90 min a day and 5 days of interval training (speed and hill runs) for between 10 and 45 min a day. Incremental exercise tests were performed 1 week before (t 1 ), 3 days after (t 2 ) and 16 days after (t 3 ) the 12-day main training period. Within AG, exercise performance improved from t 1 to t 2 by 8% (P < 0.05) and from t 2 to t 3 by 8% (P < 0.05). Maximum oxygen uptake (V O 2max ) increased from t 2 to t 3 by 10% (P < 0.05). Within SLG exercise performance increased from t 2 to t 3 by 8% (P < 0.05). At t 3 , relative and absolute V O 2max in AG were significantly higher in comparison with SLG (P = 0.005 and P = 0.046 respectively). The improved performance 3 days after AT may be explained in part by an increased oxygen uptake at submaximal exercise intensities without a change in V O 2max . Further enhancement in performance 2 weeks after AT, however, seems to have been due to the clearly enhanced V O 2max . Progressive cardiovascular adjustments might have contributed primarily to the time-de-pendent improvements observed after AT, possibly by an enhanced stroke volume overcompensating the reduced heart rates during submaximal exercise. In conclusion, our findings would suggest that training at a moderate natural altitude improves performance at sea level more than SLT. Combining base and interval training with regulation of intensity by training at constant heart rates during acclimatization at altitude would seem to be a successful training regimen for amateur runners. Most beneficial effects became apparent during the subsequent SLT around 2 weeks after return from altitude. Therefore, we are convinced that AT should be reconsidered as a potent tool for enhancing aerobic capacity, at least in non-elite athletes.

The eastern boundary of the Fayum Depression (45 m below sea level) is bounded by a 99-m-high hill (inselberg of Girza) that slopes gently eastward towards the Nile Valley. The inselberg and the surrounding plain are encrusted with 50-130-cmthick gypsum crusts that exhibit well-defined pedogenic horizons. Also, east of the Nile Valley, the Qattamia plateau is encrusted with gypsum crusts that form 50-m-wide 'pavements' that are scattered at different levels. The gypsum crusts range in thickness from 20 to 50 cm, and do not form characteristic vertical horizons. The individual gypcrete pavements exhibit massive mottled or powdery structure. Using structural, fabric and textural criteria, three main types of crusts are distinguished: (1) Eluvial horizon-massive to spongy-like powdery gypsum crusts, found at the land surface and consisting of gravels and sands cemented with gypsum; (2) Illuvial horizon A-massive indurated gypsum crusts that consist dominantly of white gypsum with horizontal and sub-vertical black gypsum veinlets; (3) Illuvial horizon B-massive mottled gypsum crusts that consist of carbonate or shale fragments floating in gypsum cement. Petrographically, the gypsum crusts in the Girza and Qattamia areas comprise a varying abundance of microcrystalline, fine lenticular, coarse lenticular, porphyroblastic, prismatic or poikilotopic gypsum. Lenticular and microcrystalline gypsum crystals are usually observed filling rhizotubules in all crusts. The origin of the gypsum crusts is related to pedogenic processes which involved the leaching of gypsum from the underlying, or adjoining, gypsiferous shale or marl layers and the subsequent displacive crystallization of gypsum in the upper soil horizon. Cycles of wetting (rain fall) and drying are believed to account for the dissolution and translocation of gypsum from the upper eluvial horizon and its recrystallization as microcrystalline and fine lenticular gypsum in the illuvial horizon A. The poikilotopic gypsum crystals in the illuvial horizon B reflect the abundance of gypsum-enriched groundwater in the phreatic zone. The dominant processes of gypsum growth are by displacive and/or inclusive crystallization, reflecting formation in pedogenic setting. The existence of gypsum crusts capping the inselberg and the surrounding plain of Girza area resist eastward deepening of the Fayum Depression. On the other hand, the gypsum crusts on the surface of the Qattamia plateau favor the development of relief inversion due to the removal of the surrounding soft materials. Therefore, the gypsum crusts provide useful paleoclimatic and geomorphic indicators to the study areas.

Palaeoclimate and palaeoecological study was carried out using palynological and thecamoebian evidences buried in ~ 4 m vertically exposed sediment section (12 km inland from the present shoreline) of Late Holocene age along the banks of Gautami-Godavari River and from three shallow cores from its Nilarevu tributary, Andhra Pradesh. Inferred climatic periods include (1) a basal cold/arid period (~3000-2000 yrs BP) with dominance of Botryococcus and other fresh water algal remains coupled with abundance of 25 species of thecamoebians indicating shallow and lentic ecosystem during most of the period and (2) a relatively warm/wet conditions (since ~2000 yrs BP) reveal lotic fresh water ecosystem characterized by the evidences of tree palynotaxa and low percentage of thecamoebians. The three shallow cores (0.5-1 m) near the mouth (~8 km stretch) of the Nilarevu tributary reveal fluvio-marine deposition in the top 50-80 cm sediment unlike the deeper fresh water depositional environment suggesting sea water ingression in the recent decades. The study illustrates that the Gautami-Godavari River delta gradually prograded since ~3000 yrs BP until 100-150 yrs unlike the intermittent relative sea level rise and fall recorded during the same period in the contemporary southeast deltaic areas.

Marine, fluvial and cave sediments, and karst phenomena were studied and dated by 14 C, U-series, and OSL methods to determine the evolution of the Namakdan diapir and the world's longest salt cave (3N Cave) during the Holocene and the Last Glacial. Sea-level oscillations, the uplift rate of the diapir and its surroundings, and erosion are the main factors influencing the diapir morphology. Although the diapir uplift rate has been constant for the last 50 kyr (∼ 4 mm/yr at a distance 600 m from the diapir edge), the uplift rate decreases with the distance from the diapir center. Drag-induced host rock deformation extends for ∼ 300 m from the outside edge of the diapir, and host rocks in this zone have an uplift rate of 0.4-0.6 mm/yr, which is 2-3 times greater than the regional uplift rate. Based on known sea-level oscillations, radiometric dating, and geological evidence, the Namakdan diapir was repeatedly flooded by sea water between 130 and 80 kyr BP. Submarine residuum composed mainly of gypsum and dolomite formed cap rock on the diapir. After ∼ 80 kyr BP, surficial drainage network and karst development started. Blind valleys and their corresponding cave systems evolved continuously for ∼ 20-30 kyr. Between 9 and 6 cal kyr BP the rate of sea-level rise exceeded the Namakdan diapir uplift rate by the factor of 3. As a consequence upward incision of cave streams (paragenetic trend) occurred, and blind valleys near the seashore were filled with gravels. Cave passages now accessible on the Namakdan and Hormoz diapirs started to form 3-6 cal kyr BP when sea level stabilized and downward stream incision began. Older cave levels are still preserved but are filled with sediments and salt precipitates. A comparison of the Namakdan diapir evolution with data from the Hormoz and Larak diapirs shows that the evolution of diapir morphology is strongly affected by the differences in uplift rates and geological settings. The general scheme of the evolution of the Namakdan diapir is believed to be partly applicable to many other diapirs in coastal settings.

Altimeter measurements of sea level from the Topex/Poseidon mission are used to explore the relationship of sea level to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The secular trend in these areas is also calculated, and the confusing effect of the NAO discussed. Sea level throughout the Mediterranean is sensitive to the NAO during the winter months. No clear effect on the Black Sea is discovered. In the period considered (1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001), the NAO has a major effect on inter-annual variability of sea level in the Mediterranean but is unlikely to have affected the apparent secular trend.

Elevated hemoglobin concentrations have been reported for high-altitude sojourners and Andean high-altitude natives since early in the 20th century. Thus, reports that have appeared since the 1970s describing relatively low hemoglobin concentration among Tibetan high-altitude natives were unexpected. These suggested a hypothesis of population differences in hematological response to high-altitude hypoxia. A case of quantitatively different responses to one environmental stress would offer an opportunity to study the broad evolutionary question of the origin of adaptations. However, many factors may confound population comparisons. The present study was designed to test the null hypothesis of no difference in mean hemoglobin concentration of Tibetan and Aymara native residents at 3,800-4,065 meters by using healthy samples that were screened for iron deficiency, abnormal hemoglobins, and thalassemias, recruited and assessed using the same techniques. The hypothesis was rejected, because Tibetan males had a significantly lower mean hemoglobin concentration of 15.6 gm/dl compared with 19.2 gm/dl for Aymara males, and Tibetan females had a mean hemoglobin concentration of 14.2 gm/dl compared with 17.8 gm/dl for Aymara females. The Tibetan hemoglobin distribution closely resembled that from a comparable, sea-level sample from the United States, whereas the Aymara distribution was shifted toward 3-4 gm/dl higher values. Genetic factors accounted for a very high proportion of the phenotypic variance in hemoglobin concentration in both samples (0.86 in the Tibetan sample and 0.87 in the Aymara sample). The presence of significant genetic variance means that there is the potential for natural selection and genetic adaptation of hemoglobin concentration in Tibetan and Aymara high-altitude populations. Am J

Seaward progradation of several kilometers has been documented mostly for leeward margin low-angle carbonate slope systems with a dominant platform top sediment source. However, steep and high-relief margins fronting deep basins can also prograde and as such are somewhat perplexing. Characteristics of two prograding Carboniferous examples provide a model which may apply elsewhere: (1) outcrops in Asturias, northern Spain serve as important analogs for (2) hydrocarbon reservoirs in steep-sided isolated platforms of the North Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan, such as Tengiz. Seismic and well data from Tengiz corroborate outcrop patterns for slope development, showing progradation of up to 5 and more than 10 km, respectively, despite the high-relief (up to 600 m) and steep (~20-358) nature of these margins. The two examples share a highly productive microbial boundstone factory extending from the platform break down the slope to nearly 300 m (or more) depth and a lower slope dominated by (mega)breccias and grain flow deposits derived from the margin and slope itself. The broad depth range of microbial boundstone increases the potential for production during both lowstands and high stands of sea level and thereby facilitates progradation independent from platform-top-derived sediment. Rapid in situ lithification of the boundstone provides stability to the steep slopes, but also leads to readjustment through shearing and avalanching. What controls the microbial cement boundstone formation remains a debate but its presence is a key factor controlling the progradational geometry of these and possibly other margins. This new model of bslopeQ shedding has implications for slope readjustment processes and resulting architecture, sequence stratigraphic interpretation, reservoir characterization, and reservoir modeling. Especially the isotropic character of microbial boundstone will reduce the potential for coherent seismic reflections to develop and possibly invoke, under certain stress regimes, shattering and fracturing thereby generating significant non-matrix permeability. Key considerations are the contrasts with the Bahamian high stand shedding depositional model, slope

The mid-Carboniferous strata of northern England are characterised by mixed clastic-carbonate cycles (Yoredale cyclothems), attributed here to the short eccentricity Milankovitch rhythm. In a typical cycle, transgressive normal-marine shelf carbonates are succeeded by marine shales, then highstand prodelta mudstones and delta front-delta top sandstones with local coals. A detailed study of one cycle, the Great Limestone Cyclothem of the northern Pennines (Alston Block), reveals that within the transgressive carbonates, the beds, averaging 75 cm in thickness and defined by mm-shale partings or cm-mudrock layers, form two thinning-upward to thickening-upward bed-sets. Individual beds and the bed-sets can be correlated across the region. Oxygen isotope and strontium trace element data also reveal patterns of increasing and decreasing values through the limestone, which broadly correspond to the bed-thickness cycles. The beds are interpreted as millennial-scale cycles, the result of highfrequency, arid-humid climatic fluctuations. The bed-sets are interpreted as the response to a longer term arid-humid climate and sea-level cycle, driven by the precession rhythm. It is postulated that millennial-scale climatic changes, which are a well-known feature of the Quaternary and are here inferred for the Carboniferous, were responsible for the deposition of the beds that are a characteristic feature of many marine sedimentary successions in the geological record. The most likely overriding control is fluctuations in solar output.

We have characterised a small, high-efficiency diesel generator selected to power remote experiments on the Antarctic plateau at altitudes of up to 5000 m. We describe the design of an environmental chamber to simulate these high altitudes and present an experimental investigation of the engine operation at high altitude on Jet A-1, comparing this to the engine's performance at sea level. Although attention must be paid to the provision of adequate cooling, no modification to the engine itself is required. Our final system provides very high reliability and produces 1500 W of electrical power with a fuel consumption of 280 g kWh À1. A bank of ultracapacitors is used to start the engine in the cold environment of Antarctica. We describe the low-temperature operation and survival tests that we performed on the ultracapacitors and the engine.

The elevations and chronology of interglacial shorelines and other sea-level indicators provide information on ice volumes for these earlier periods compared with today. But, as for the Holocene, the relationship between sea levels and ice volumes for earlier interglacials is not simple because of the planet's deformational, gravitational and rotational response to changes in ice-water loads (glacio-hydro isostasy). In particular, the pattern of global sea level for a particular interglacial will be a function of the earth and ocean response to ice loads applied before, during and after the interglacial in question. This paper examines the role of glacio-hydro isostasy during these glacial cycles to make three key points. The first is to demonstrate why interglacial sea levels cannot be interpreted directly in terms of ice volume. The second is to illustrate the spatial variability that can be expected in interglacial sea levels because of the Earth's isostatic response to changing ice and water loads and to demonstrate why observations from different localities should not be combined into a single sea-level function without first correcting for differential isostatic effects. The third addresses the question whether, in the absence of perfect knowledge of the ice sheets and earth rheology, inferences can be made about ice volumes during an interglacial. We conclude that if these isostatic factors are ignored, interpretations of interglacial sea levels can lead to serious errors in the inferences about ice volumes during the interglacials.

The distribution of seismic units in deposits of the basins near the Antarctic-Scotia plate boundary is described based on the analysis of multichannel seismic reflection profiles. Five main seismic units are identified. The units are bounded by high-amplitude continuous reflectors, named a to d from top to bottom. The two older units are of different age and seismic facies in each basin and were generally deposited during active rifting and seafloor spreading.

Studies on denudation rates can provide insight into the influence of climate change, tectonics, and human activities on landscape evolution. Research performed in Central Italy has shown considerable spatial variability of denudation rates in the major river basins. These studies have focused mainly on the Tyrrhenian side of the Italian peninsula, where Plio-Pleistocene marine deposits filling NW–SE elongated sedimentary basins have been uplifted during the Quaternary up to several hundreds of meters above present sea level. Small sub-catchments developed on clays are affected by sharp- and/or rounded-edged badlands (i.e. calanchi and biancane), representing denudation “hot spots” in the present-day morphoclimatic framework.In this paper, we analyze the relationships between indirectly estimated denudation rates at the catchment scale and field monitoring data at the hillslope scale. We attempt to better understand and quantify all hillslope processes that contribute to seasonal variability of denudation, to help with predicting the net input from “hot spots” to the overall estimated sediment yield at the basin outlets. At the hillslope scale, we discuss, in particular, the variability of denudation rates at calanchi and biancane badlands as a function of their different morphoevolution.

Aim  There remains some uncertainty concerning the causes of extinctions of Madagascar’s megafauna. One hypothesis is that they were caused by over-hunting by humans. A second hypothesis is that their extinction was caused by both environmental change and hunting. This paper systematically addresses the second hypothesis through examination of two new pollen records from south-eastern Madagascar alongside other published records across the island.Location  South-eastern Madagascar.Methods  We reconstructed past vegetation and fire dynamics over the past 6000 years at two sites in south-eastern Madagascar (Ste-Luce) using fossil pollen and charcoal contained in sedimentary sequences. We investigated drivers of vegetation changes and how these, in turn, influenced faunal species in the south-east, using published climatic, archaeological and faunal records. Further, we also used published records to provide a synthesis of environmental changes on the whole island.Results  Vegetation reconstructions indicate that the mosaic vegetation in the region of Ste-Luce was highly dynamic in response to climatic changes. The open woodland, surrounding the littoral forest, transformed into an ericoid grassland between c. 5800 and 5200 cal. yr bp, possibly in response to a moderate drought recorded during this period. The littoral forest was more stable between c. 5100 and 1000 cal. yr bp, with only some minor compositional changes c. 2800 cal. yr bp and between c. 1900 and 1000 cal. yr bp. Significant forest decline, however, is observed at c. 950 cal. yr bp, coinciding with a drought and a marine surge. A comparison of these results with a synthesis of published vegetation records across the island shows asynchronous vegetation changes in response to various droughts during the Holocene, except for the 950 cal. yr bp drought event, with evidence of widespread vegetation transformations and fires across the island.Main conclusions  Pronounced climatic desiccation between 1200 and 700 cal. yr bp may have been the slow driver framing and triggering vegetation transformations and decline in megafaunal populations. In addition, hunting by drought-impacted human inhabitants and competition with newly introduced cattle would have amplified the impacts on megafaunal populations, leading to numerous extinctions in this period.

To examine the applicability of C/N and organic carbon stable isotope (δ 13 C) in studies of the Holocene sea level and freshwater discharge in the large river mouth of Yangtze, we observed the distribution of carbon, nitrogen and δ 13 C in a late-Quaternary core (ZK9) collected from the present subaqueous delta. We also collected published data of the two proxies for the suspended particulate matter (SPM) and surficial sediments from the lower Yangtze River to the adjacent East China Sea. The results show that the estuarine front is an important boundary for terrestrial and marine contribution of the organic component in the modern sedimentary environment. In the core ZK9, sediments deposited during c. 13-9 cal. ka BP are characterized by high values of TOC (0.54-1.16%), CaCO 3 (0.35% on average), and C/N (>12), which reflect an inner tidal estuarine environment dominated by C3 terrestrial organic carbon input. During c. 9-0.7 cal. ka BP, both TOC content (0.57% on average) and C/N ratio (<10) decrease remarkably while TN increases, indicating a lower estuarine or shallow marine environment. An abrupt sea level rise from c. 9 cal. ka BP resulted in a deeper water environment and reduced terrestrial input at the core location. The low δ 13 C values (−24.23‰ on average) before c. 6 cal. ka BP reflect a dominantly terrestrial source of organic matter associated with increased freshwater discharge into the estuary during that time. The sediments since c. 6 cal. ka BP are characterized by increasing δ 13 C up to −24.1 to −23.39‰, reflecting more contribution from marine algae as freshwater discharge fell. We suggest that in the Yangtze River mouth the C/N ratio indicates an abrupt sea level rise at c. 9 cal. ka BP, while δ 13 C is more useful in reflecting freshwater discharge.

Coral species composition of drilled cores from emergent bank reefs, and coral cover of the surface of old and living reefs located along the coast of the state of Bahia, Eastern Brazil, revealed that there is a marked change in the occurrence of the major building coral species in different time intervals of the reef structure, as well as in the living surface of reefs located in two different geographical sites. Holocene core sections from two reef areas (12°40 0 S-38°00 0 W and 18°00 0 S-39°00 0 W) have as major reef builders, on its topmost core interval (3 to 4 ky old), the endemic coral Mussismilia braziliensis Verrill, 1868, which also dominate on the 2.5-3.5 ky old surfaces of truncated reef tops. At the base of the cores (the 2 m lower interval, older than 4 ky BP), another endemic coral Mussismilia harttii Verrill, 1868 is the dominant reef component. The relative abundance of M. braziliensis on the living surfaces of shallow reefs from both areas, shows that in the southern area, it is up to 98% on reefs located 60 km off the coast, in depths between 3 and 4 m, but do not exceed 1.3% on the surface of the northern reefs located 1-2 km off the coast in depths 4-5 m. The Holocene falling sea level that occurred along the coast of Brazil since 5.1 ky BP, causes an increasing runoff into the area of coastal reefs. This phenomenon may have affected the nearshore reef building fauna, replacing a more susceptive coral fauna with one better adapted to low light levels and higher sediment influx. The high turbidity associated with early Holocene shelf flooding, should also be responsible for the absence of M. braziliensis during the initial stages of reef buildup in Brazil. At the present time, the rapidly increasing human pressure, due to changes in land uses of the coastal zone (increasing sedimentation rate, nutrification of coastal waters, industrial pollution) and underwater practices, such as overfishing and an intense tourism, is aggravating the recovery capacity of this already naturally threatened coral community. If this situation coupled with increasing sea surface temperature persists, modern coral reef growth, in Brazil cannot be maintained and the major reef building coral species of the reefs in Bahia, a remnant endemic coral fauna will very soon appear in the list of endangered species.

A multi-proxy study of an offshore core in Saldanha Bay (South Africa) provides new insights into fluvial depo-sition, ecosystems, phytogeography and sea-level history during the late Paleogene-early Neogene. Offshore seismic data reveal bedrock topography, and provide evidence of relative sea levels as low as −100 m during the Oligocene. 3D landscape reconstruction reveals hills, plains and an anastomosing river system. A Chattian or early Miocene age for the sediments is inferred from dinoflagellate taxa Distatodinium craterum, Chiropteridium lobospinosum, Homotryblium plectilum and Impagidinium paradoxum. The subtropical forest revealed by palynol-ogy includes lianas and vines, evergreen trees, palms and ferns, implying higher water availability than today, probably reduced seasonal drought and stronger summer rainfall. From topography, sedimentology and palynol-ogy we reconstruct Podocarpaceae-dominated forests, Proto-Fynbos, and swamp/riparian forests with palms and other angio...

Although rising global sea levels will affect the estuarine flooded areas over the coming decades, the local and regional-scale processes will also induce important changes in these coastal systems. The main aim of this work is to investigate possible tidal changes in estuarine systems induced by local geomorphologic modifications, analysing the particular case of Ria de Aveiro which is in risk of inundation. Located in the Portuguese west coast, this tidally driven lagoon has a large area of mostly abandoned salt pans, which are in progressive degradation caused by the lack of maintenance and by the strong currents which erode their protective walls.

The effect of a topoclimatic gradient on soil nematode communities was investigated in the Israeli Judean Desert. Four locations along a 35 km gradient, from an elevation of 650 m above sea level with 620 mm rainfall to a –60 m relative to sea level with a rainfall below 110 m, were studied: Givat Yearim, Maale Adumim, Mishor Adumim and Kalia. Monthly soil samples were collected between January 1994 and December 1995. Thirteen nematode families and 17 genera were observed. Cephalobus, Heterocephalobus, Aphelenchoides, Tylenchus, Dorylaimus and Eudorylaimus were found to be the dominant genera. Ecological measurements of soil nematode community structure, diversity, and maturity indices were assessed, and comparisons between four locations and four seasons were made. Significant differences in the total numbers of nematodes were found between the locations (p < 0.01) and seasons (p < 0.05), where Givat Yearim > Maale Adumim > Mishor Adumim > Kalia, winter > spring > autumn > summer. Bacterivores were found to be the most abundant trophic group across locations and seasons, with a mean relative abundance of 55.0%. The densities of bacterivores, plant parasites and omnivores-predators during the winter season exhibited similar trends at all four locations, with Givat Yearim > Maale Adumim > Mishor Adumim > Kalia. None of the ecological indices were significantly different between locations. However, the maturity index (MI), trophic diversity (TD) and Simpson diversity (SI) exhibited significant differences between seasons.

The distribulion and ecological significance of the relict benthic foraminiferal assemblage found in the study area off Myanmar is discussed here. Of the 126 surface sediments studied for foraminiferal content, relict foraminiferal assemblage comprising the genera Operculina-Amphistegina-Calcar'ma-Alveolinella-Heterostegina were encountered at 22 different locations nearly parallel to the west coast of Myanmar. Soft coral sclerites, coral rubble and calcareous algae were found associated with this assemblage. These signatures confirm the existence of fossil patch reefs in the region, which were never reported before. A conceptual framework is proposed to explain the proliferation of coral patches at different depths during different times in the geological past. Radiocarbon AMS dating of 7 select samples representing different depths revealed different ages at different depths. To derive a sea-level curve, the sea level was assigned to 17.5 m above the depth of finding the relict fauna as deciphered from soft coral assemblage. On the basis of the faunal ecology and chronology, for the first time a sea level curve for the past 16,000 radiocarbon years is proposed for the west coast of Myanmar. This study suggests an episodic sea-level rise in the region. A comparison of this sea level curve with the ones proposed for the East and West coasts of India indicates that in addition to the global Holocene sea level rise, tectonic vertical displacement is the cause of the destruction of the soft coral patches off west coast of Myanmar.

The world-wide problem of increasing light pollution is assessed through the development of global maps of the distribution of zenith sky brightness with a resolution of approximately 1 km. These maps are produced using satellite imagery which provides photometrically calibrated data over the surface of the Earth at night, combined with a model of light scattering in the atmosphere to calculate the sky brightness from a given location. High resolution upward flux data have been obtained from the Operational Linescan System carried by the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program satellite, an oscillating scan radiometer with low-light visible and thermal infrared imaging capabilities. Light propagation in the atmosphere was computed at sea level based on the modeling technique introduced by Garstang which account for Earth curvature, double scattering and extinction. The Atlas reveals that light pollution of the night sky is not confined, as commonly believed, to developed countries,...

Natural warning signs of tsunamis include ground shaking from earthquakes and unusual sea-level fluctuations, wave forms, and sounds. These signs can alert people to impending tsunamis, but no research has explored the recognizability of these signs or the social-cognitive factors that affect human behavioral response to them. Of 663 interviewees, 24% felt ground shaking during the earthquake; 69% saw something unusual about the ocean before the first wave reached land, mostly a receded shoreline; and 55% heard something unusual. Despite these levels of observation, most people did not evacuate. In fact, 65% saw other people in the danger zone at the time of the tsunami impact. Most respondents had to run for their lives but could not identify a safe place. There are major differences in experience among north, central, and southern coastal Thailand, reflecting social, topographical, and hydrological factors.

Revised diatom and new dinoflagellate cyst and benthic foraminiferal data from the eastern Baltic Sea have refined our understanding of Eemian (Last Interglacial; 131e119.5 ka) sea-level change on the Russian Karelia, a former seaway linking the Baltic to the White Sea. Results from Peski, eastern Baltic show the initiation of marine conditions just before 131 ka in the latest Saalian, after the opening of a connection to the North Sea. Following the onset of the Eemian marine highstand and the opening of the White Sea connection at around 130.25 ka, near-fully marine conditions persisted in the eastern Baltic area for ca 6 kyr, until ca 124 ka. For most of the Eemian, a strong thermal stratification in the eastern Baltic resulted from an Arctic and possible North Atlantic water component from the White Sea merging with warmer waters from the North Sea. From ca 124 ka, decreasing salinity indicates the end of the marine highstand and a simultaneous closure of the Baltic SeaeWhite Sea connection, i.e. a duration of ca 6 kyr for this seaway. The main influence of White Sea inflow appears to be restricted to the eastern Baltic area, although a large submerged area in the Russian Karelia associated with temperate Atlantic waters could have assisted in creating a more oceanic climate for Central Europe.

1] Marine sediments recorded a series of Heinrich events during the last glacial period, massive ice surges that deposited prominent layers of ice-rafted debris in the North Atlantic. Here we explore oceanic mechanisms that can potentially trigger and amplify the observed ice calving events. Simulations of abrupt glacial climate change with a coupled ocean-atmosphere-sea ice model show a substantial regional sea level rise in the North Atlantic in response to a collapse of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC). The increased heat uptake of the global ocean after the MOC collapse leads to an additional rise in global sea level. We hypothesize that these sea level changes have the potential to destabilize Northern Hemisphere ice shelves and ice sheets and to trigger ice surges. Sea level rise due to ice calving and subsurface ocean warming provides two positive feedback mechanisms contributing to further destabilization of ice shelves and ice sheets.

Sea surface adjustment to combined wind and pressure forcing is examined using numerical solutions to the shallow water equations. The experiments use coastal geometry and bottom topography representative of the North Atlantic and are forced by realistic barometric pressure and wind stress fields. The response to pressure is essentially static or close to the inverted barometer solution at periods longer than a few days and dominates the sea level variability, with wind-driven sea level signals being relatively small. With regard to the dynamic signals, wind-driven fluctuations dominate at long periods, as expected from quasi-geostrophic theory. Pressure becomes more important than wind stress as a source of dynamic signals only at periods shorter than approximately three days. Wind-and pressure-driven sea level fluctuations are anticorrelated over most regions. Hence regressions of sea level on barometric pressure yield coefficients generally smaller than expected for the inverted barometer response known to be the case in the model. In the regions of significant wind-pressure correlation effects, to infer the correct pressure response using statistical methods, input fields must include winds as well as pressure. Because of the nonlocal character of the wind response, multivariate statistical models with local wind driving as input are not very successful. Inclusion of nonlocal wind variability over extensive regions is necessary to extract the correct pressure response. Implications of these results to the interpretation of sea level observations are discussed. 8033 ß

The present-day bathymetric profile in the Ross Sea, as in other regions around the Antarctic margin, is deepening landward and shows unusually high water-depths: up to 1000 m in the inner shelf. These two features are the product of multiple ice sheet advances and retreats on the continental shelf. In this paper, we present a reconstruction of paleo-bathymetric profiles of the Eastern Ross Sea throughout the Cenozoic. The evolution of the sea-floor morphology from shallow and seaward dipping to the present-day configuration gives new insights into the understanding of the West Antarctic Ice Ž . Sheet WAIS history in this sector. Paleo-bathymetric profiles have been calculated by applying a reverse post-rift modelling, starting from a cross-section derived from multichannel seismic data. The post-rift reverse modelling includes: sediment decompaction, isostatic compensation after removing and recovering sediments of the post-rift thermal subsidence. The major uncertainty in our model is due to the paucity of stratigraphic constraints for the late Miocene and Pliocene sequences that prevents precise values of paleowater-depth being estimated. Nevertheless, major changes in the shape of the continental shelf and slope throughout the Cenozoic can be recognised, and mark some critical steps in the Ross Sea Ž . Ž evolution. 1 Pre-Miocene: the Eastern Ross Sea was a deep structural basin bordered to the west by areas e.g., the Central . High outcropping the sea level and hosting valley glaciers or small ice caps. A continental shelf edge was not clearly Ž . developed yet, the eastern flank of the Central High appeared as an inclined ramp, dipping towards the ocean. 2 Early to middle Miocene: tectonic subsidence gradually produced a marine flooding over most of the pre-Miocene sub-aerial areas. A continental shelf, slope and rise are gradually delineated. The shelf profile was seaward dipping and not yet overdeepened.