Agroforestry Systems

There is a need to accurately estimate the carbon sequestration potential of many of our agricultural and horticultural industries now that the Australian Government has introduced the Carbon Farming Initiative and is planning to introduce an emissions trading scheme in 2015. This study estimates that the carbon sequestration of macadamia plantations is around 3t CO 2 e/ha/yr, and provides a methodology to assess the carbon footprint of the Australian Macadamia Industry. This study attempts to estimate the growth rate, and subsequently the sequestration rate of plantation grown Macadamia spp. through regression analysis of stem characteristics of destructively sampled Macadamia integrifolia var. 344. A volume increment curve was also derived using three common genetic varieties (A4, A16 & A42). This curve is used to extrapolate a carbon sequestration rate for the national macadamia plantation estate. Once volume estimates and sequestration rates are deter-mined, an economic benefit of the carbon sequestration can be estimated by auditing the amount of carbon produced by activities such as ''on farm'' fuel use, fuel used in transport, and energy used in producing the product. In this way, a life cycle carbon budget can be developed that will aid the sustainable development of the macadamia and horticultural industries in Australia through the production of carbon credits from the carbon stored in the trees.

Organic farming offers an alternative that can eliminate many of the environmental problems of conventional agriculture in the industrialized world. Instead of using petroleum-derived chemicals to fertilize and protect crops, farmers manage their fields so as to take advantage of naturally-produced composts and mulches that recycle nutrients, and control pests and weeds. However, organic farming is often logistically inefficient, because these organic composts and mulches are bulky and difficult to transport. Alleycropping as practiced in the tropics may be able to make organic farming more efficient in the southeastern United States. In this form of alleycropping, trees or shrubs, often leguminous, are planted in hedgerows between open spaces ('alleys') where the crop is grown. The hedgerow species are periodically pruned (both aboveground and belowground), and prunings fall directly onto or into the soil where the crop is growing. These prunings add carbon and nutrients to the soil, and provide mulch that helps suppress weeds. Use of prunings reduces the need for composting and hauling manures and mulches, thereby increasing the efficiency by which organic material is supplied to the soil that supports the economic crop. In Georgia, dry weight annual production of prunings reached up to 18.4 Mg ha −1 , a quantity high enough to maintain crop production. Thus, alleycropping may be feasible for organic farmers in the southeastern United States.

While slash-and burn farmers convert forest to agriculture, they also regenerate significant areas of secondary fallow forests on their farms. Under what conditions does secondary forest cover persist on slash-and-burn farms? Survey data from Pará, Brazil show that secondary forests occupy 20% of farm area even after a century of settlement. In addition to restoring soil fertility, secondary forests contribute over 20% of farmers' income through products such as charcoal, fruit, game animals and firewood for on-farm processing. Econometric analysis shows that slow rates of population growth and increases in agricultural incomes through on-farm processing of agricultural products enable farmers to maintain long fallows and result in diversified systems compatible with secondary forest cover in the study area. On the other hand, declining agricultural productivity, subsidized credit, declines in the growth rate of secondary forests and policies favoring speculative land acquisition threaten secondary forest persistence. In older settlement areas, secondary forests are often the only forest resource available to the rural poor. Fallow areas should therefore be managed not only for agricultural productivity, but also for conserving forest resources.

Abstract. The magnitude of root competition 17 year-old coconut palms suffer from three year-old inter-planted multipurpose trees, Vateria indica L., Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston. or Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. and kacholam (Kaempferia galanga L.), a ...

Fine root and nodule production and turnover in pruned 2-and 8-yr-old Erythrina poeppigiana (Walp.) O.F. Cook trees were estimated under humid tropical conditions by applying the compartment flow model (CFM) to fine root and nodule biomass and necromass measured in sequentially taken core samples. Shoot pruning intensities compared were complete pruning (i.e., complete removal of shoots) and partial pruning (i.e., retention of one branch on the pruned stump). The CFM provided reasonable estimates of nodule dynamics but did not apply to fine root data. Over a five-month observation period, nodule production in completely and partially pruned 2-yr-old trees was 58.2 and 115 g tree −1 , respectively, and the corresponding values in 8-yr-old trees were 26.8 and 26.4 g tree −1 . Senescent nodules and fine roots pass to soil organic matter via decomposition. Partially and completely pruned 2-yr-old trees added 95.4 and 50.4 g tree −1 decomposed nodules to soil, respectively. The respective value for 8-yr-old trees were 26.7 and 36.5 g tree −1 . Nodule and fine root turnover was compensated for by new production at 10-14 weeks after pruning. The retention of a branch on the pruned E. poeppigiana tree stump allows better fine root and nodule survival, and enhances tree biomass production.

A field study was conducted to investigate the effect of water deficit on the morphology, productivity, and quality of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit. Five main irrigation levels were applied based on actual evapotranspiration (AET): 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, and 1.25 of the AET. Plant height, number of leaves and branches, and root length and diameter were measured. Fresh and dry weights were recorded at harvest, and crude protein was analyzed in leaves and roots. The results showed that morphological and yield characteristics were affected by the amount of water applied. The number of leaves remaining at the end of 21 weeks of growth was 65, 84, 93, 87 and 102 at 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, and 1.25 AET. Root length and diameter increased with increasing irrigation. The greatest root length (66.5 cm) at 1.00 AET did not differ significantly from that at 1.25 AET (58.8 cm). The dry yield at 0.50, 0.75 and 1.00 AET showed an increased trend per plant in each treatment. Similarly, leaf crude protein showed a trend of increase with increasing irrigation although values were not significantly different between the levels of irrigation. The moisture content ranged from 60 to 63 % in leaves and 32-35 % in branches across the five treatments. The analysis of water use efficiency showed that the 0.50 AET plants produced 2.6 kg ha-1 mm-1 of dry forage compared to 1.8 kg ha-1 mm-1 at 0.75 AET. The results showed that 0.50 or 0.75 AET represents the best irrigation level for L. leucocephala cultivation, producing a total dry yield of 0.68 and 0.72 t ha-1 , respectively, in our study.

At present ICRAF international cooperation channels the Council's contribution to efforts by national and international research institutions in both the generation of agroforestry technologies and person-power development. This paper attempts a critical evaluation of the evolutionary process that led ICRAF collaborative activities from their initial role of creating opportunities for testing methodologies to the ongoing networking stage. Two stages are distinguished in the initial development phase; the one contributing to the building of an institutional capability (more "in-house" cooperation), and the follow-up stage where activities were aimed at establishing a basis for continuous collaboration with partner institutions. The present networking phase, with an African focus, is based on the assumption that institutional complementarity is the appropriate scheme to overcome the effect of constraints prevailing in the continent on the generation of appropriate agroforestry technologies. In this context, an ecozone scope, integrated planning and a network organizational structure are proposed as pillars of an ICRAF strategy to achieve complementarity in agroforestry research for development.

The terrace ecosystem is considered as hotspot of jackfruit tree (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam) in Bangladesh having potential for understory cropping. However, most of the jackfruit orchards are often found utilized or underutilized. A field experiment was conducted under the jackfruit orchard to study the performance of aroids (Colocasia esculenta L.) from April to October, 2017 in Belabo upazila of Narsingdi district. Four distances (1, 2, 3 and 4 m) from the base of jackfruit tree were considered for aroid planting to evaluate its performance as agroforestry crop in comparison to sole aroid. Land use and economic performances of agroforestry and sole systems were also evaluated. The results indicated that the production of jackfruit increased by 62.73%, while the yield of aroid reduced by 33.48% in agroforestry systems as compared to the yields of sole (non-agroforestry) systems. In agroforestry system, the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was severely reduced by 85-77%...

Fuelwood production from a high density leucaena-based fodder production experiment at Mtwapa, Coast Province, Kenya is reported. Leucaena with and without other fodder crops namely, Cassava, Bana and Napier grass, formed the main-plot treatments while leucaena densities ranging from 6;250 to 100,000 ha-I planted in single-or double-line planting arrangements formed the sub-plot treatments of the split-plot design used. Each treatment was replicated four times. The experiment was established and maintained without the use of fertilizer, pesticides, irrigation. Hand weeding was done only during the first year. After 2.7 years growth, height and diameter measurements were taken before cutting back the leucaena stems to 0.5 m above ground. Utilizable fuelwood (twigs greater than 0.5 mm diameter) was then sun-dried for 3 months and dry weights taken. Fuetwood yields were significantly reduced by the fodder intercrops. Yield from leucaena intercropped with fodder crops were, on average, 30% lower than yield from sole stands of leucaena. Mean yields of the single-line plantings ranged from 13.7 to 21.2 tons ha-:. Yield from the double-line plantings were lower (on average 10%) than that of single-line plantings and were as well highly variable. Unlike tree heights, diameters in the single-line planting arrangement were not affected significantly by the fodder intercrops. In the single line plantings, yield of fuelwood from sole stand of leucaena was higher at all in-row spacings than the yield from intercropped leucaena. Increase in in-row spacing of leucaena generally led to reduced yield of fuelwood. Fodder yields of intercropped Cassava, Bana and Napier grasses were near normal in the first year but zero or negligible in the remaining 1.7 years. Implications of the prolonged tree establishment period on fodder yields after opening of the canopy are discussed.

This study was realized in Bétérou, Bétécoucou and Samiondji along Ouémé catchment located at the north and the center of Benin. It was aimed at: (i) characterize the soil of different types of agroforestry systems on the Ouémé watershed; (ii) describe the best agroforestry practices in the watershed; (iii) assess the contribution of these systems to soil conservation (iv) assess carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems in the catchment. Soil profiles were installed and samples of soil, litter and roots were collected and analyzed in the laboratory. Most soils have a high rate of sand and low loam and clay; they are neutral, low in organic matter, available phosphorus and nitrogen; they have a low cation exchange capacity and have a satisfactory C/N ratio. The potential for soil carbon sequestration of parks are averaging: 46.61 tC/ha for cashew parks, 57.21 tC/ha for shea parks, 40.55 tC/ha for mango parks, 38.29 tC/ha in African locust bean tree parks, 17.93 tC/ha for orange parks, 37.39 tC/ha for palm oil parks and 24.90 tC/ha for teak parks.

Keywords: soil characterization, potential carbon sequestration, parkland, Ouémé catchment, Benin.

Information regarding changes in soil condition after reforestation may help in inferring environmental and ecosystem benefits. A case study was undertaken in Victoria State, Australia, to investigate the changes in soil condition after reforestation of a deforested creek bank to infer environmental benefits. The study was conducted at four sites in a large farm. At each site a *150 m strip of land that ran perpendicular to a creek from the bank to cropping area was selected. The results show that total organic carbon (TOC) and total mineral nitrogen (TN) in the cropped segment (CS) of a strip at a given site were significantly higher than in the corresponding reforested segment (RS) which in turn was higher than in the bare segment (BS) whilst the electrical conductivity (EC) and bulk density (BD) were in the order BS [ RS [ CS. Six years after reforestation, TOC and TN in the RS increased by 30 and 24 %, respectively, compared with 9 and 8 % for 3 years. The EC, BD, and pH decreased by 26, 14, 14 %, respectively, 6 years after reforestation. Creek bank reforestation associated improvements in TOC, TN, BD, EC, and pH may have positive impact on pollutant and salinity abatement.

Changes in coffee economics are leading producers to reduce agrochemical use and increase the use of shade. Research is needed on how to balance the competition from shade trees with the provision of ecological services to the coffee. In 2000, long-term coffee experiments were established in Costa Rica and Nicaragua to compare coffee agroecosystem performance under full sun, legume and

Traditional homegardens are an important component of the farming systems in many rural communities and have been highlighted considerably due to their sustainability and role in the conservation of biodiversity. However, the functional aspect of the homegardens, which includes the phenological behavior of the dominant tree species in such agroforestry systems, has been undermined till date, and there is a lack of adequate data on this aspect of the traditional homegardens. As a step in this direction the present study was carried out to determine the phenological behavior of important multipurpose trees in the homegardens of the village of Dargakona, Assam, northeast India. The study revealed the dominance of periodic growth deciduous species from a total of 25 tree species selected for phenological observation. The diversity of multipurpose trees in the homegardens is represented by different plant functional types with different phenological behavior which showed significant changes in their responses to inter-annual climatic variations. The diversity of tree species with different phenological behavior has implications for the temporal partitioning of resources, especially during periods of scarcity, thereby resulting in efficient utilization of resources such as water. Also the diverse phenological behavior plays an important role in regulating the food supply for the herbivore population and the year-round availability of products, and such information can be useful in the selection of species for integration into other agroforestry systems which can be sustainable in the long run.

The first steps in developing an agroforestry extension and training program involve compilation, synthesis, and analysis of current knowledge on existing practices. Equally important is to understand the perceptions of landowners and professionals of agroforestry as a land use option. No systematic effort has been made to assess these critical issues in the southeastern United States. Therefore, needs assessment surveys were developed following an analysis of major demographic issues that frame land use in the region and synthesis of information obtained from informal site visits and interviews with people engaged in resource and land use in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. Surveys of extension professionals and landowners were then undertaken in the states of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia to represent the southeastern region. In addition to getting insights into the perceived benefits and concerns about agroforestry practices, the surveys indicated that the extent of alley cropping, forest farming and silvopasture practiced by landowners was less than anticipated, and that the prominence of windbreaks was overlooked by professionals. Managed riparian forest buffers or streamside management zones and windbreak technologies were the most widely used forms of agroforestry in the study area, although landowners did not recognize influence of agroforestry practices on quality or quantity of water among benefits of highest importance to them. Multistrata patio- or home gardens were also a prominent landowner-practice and acknowledged by professionals. These survey results can be useful for developing a relevant agroforestry extension and training program in the subtropical Southeast and may be of interest to agroforestry efforts in other similar settings.

A fundamental hypothesis of agroforestry is the complementary use of soil resources. However, productivity of many agroforestry systems has been lower than expected due to net competition for water, highlighting the need for a mechanistic understanding of belowground interactions. The goal of this study was to examine root-root interactions for water in a temperate semiarid agroforestry system, based on ponderosa pines and a Patagonian grass. The hypotheses were: (a) A greater proportion of water uptake by pines is from deeper soil layers when they are growing with grasses than when they are growing alone; (b) Growth of grasses is improved by the use of water hydraulically lifted by pines. We used stable isotopes of O to analyze water sources of plants, and we measured sapflow direction in pine roots and continuous soil water content with a very sensitive system. We also installed barriers to isolate the roots of a set of grasses from pine roots, in which we measured water status, relative growth and water sources, comparing to control plants. The results indicated that pines and grasses show some complementary in the use of soil water, and that pines in agroforestry systems use less shallow water than pines in monoculture. We found evidence of hydraulic lift, but contradicting results were obtained comparing growth and isotope results of the root isolation experiment. Therefore, we could not reject nor accept that grasses use water that is hydraulically lifted by the pines, or that this results in a positive effect on grass growth. This information may contribute to understand the complex and variable belowground interactions in temperate agroforestry.

Inadequate soil management practices adopted in the Brazilian semi-arid region contribute to erosive processes. Agroforestry systems (AFs) have been considered an alternative to reduce water erosion. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of two alternatives AFs, a traditional and an intensive cropping system on the losses of sediments, water, organic carbon and nutrients caused by water erosion in comparison to the natural vegetation (caatinga) in a semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil. The agroecosystems studied were: agrosilvopasture (AGP) which consisted of an alley cropping system, cultivated with Leucaena leucocephala and maize, within an area composed by 22% of native trees (200 native trees per hectare) which was grazed during the dry season; silvopasture (SILV) that was composed by 38% of native trees (260 trees per hectare) with a stocking rate of 20 ewes during whole year; traditional agrosilvopasture (TRAG) being managed as following: total deforestation, burning of the residues, cropped with maize for 2 years (1998 and 1999) and fallow during 8-10 years; and intensive cropping (IC) system which was deforested and burned in 1997 followed by cultivation of maize from 1998 to 2002, and thereafter by a fallow period of 8-10 years similar to TRAG. Two areas of native forest (NF1, NF2) known as 'caatinga', used as grassland during the dry season and as a source of wood, were selected and used as reference of steady state in the comparative study in relation to the cultivated sites. Sediment and water losses as a result of erosion were collected during two rainy seasons, i.e. 2003 and 2004, and nutrients and organic carbon contents were determined. Soil samples were collected and organic carbon, pH in water, pH in KCl, water dispersible clay (WDC) and hydraulic conductivity (K 0 ) were measured. In 2003, sediment and water losses did not differ significantly among all treatments. However, in 2004, TRAG (0.70 Mg ha -1 ) and NF1 (1.37 Mg ha -1 ) showed the highest sediment losses, whereas TRAG and IC presented the highest water losses. On average, nutrients losses in cropped areas were lower than in natural vegetation (NF1, NF2).

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance and characterize plant growth behaviour, light profile and soil fertility status of seventeen different trees (12 years old). The study indicated higher biomass production potential of Gmelina arborea, Dalbergia sissoo and Leucaena leucocephala. Higher photosynthetically active radiation value below tree canopy indicates compatibility of trees with a majority of agricultural crops. In the present study, a significant increase in pH and decrease in EC of trees were observed. The significant reduction in nutrients in different trees indicated a need for replenishment of nutrients in soil for maintaining soil fertility in agroforestry systems on long-term basis.

This paper reviews the research themes and methodologies used by CATIE in agroforestry research with shade trees over coffee (Coffea arabica) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) during the past 20 years. Initially research focused on characterization and production studies (of crop and timber including border areas) of traditional systems using temporary and permanent sample plots on private farms. The assessment area of traditional shade-coffee (or cacao) systems should be the whole plot, including the border areas, and not some subjectively selected central area which supposedly represents unit area productivity. Uncontrolled crop, tree, and management heterogeneity limited extrapolation of early on-farm research results to other farmers' fields. Replicated case studies of best bet technologies (traditional or experimental) on different farms are often preferable to the use of formal experimental designs. On-station research included the use of systematic spacing designs to test extreme shade tree density treatments of coffee. Most nutrient cycling studies were also carried out on-station, using service and timber shade species over coffee and cacao to evaluate the ability of these agroforestry systems to maintain nutrient reserves and diversify production. Plot size (even 36 × 36 m) was limiting for long term research because of inter-plot interference, both below-and above ground, when using fast growing, tall timber trees as shade. These experiences suggest a minimum plot size of 2,500 m 2. Individual tree designs and tree-crop interface studies (e.g. regression analysis of data taken along transects) are promising experimental/sampling approaches that need further development. The principal research thrusts proposed for the next five years are bio-physical process research on coffee responses to shade and competition with trees (growth, carbon allocation, phenology, disease-pest tolerance, yields and coffee quality effects) and socioeconomic analyses of both traditional and new or improved shade-coffee combinations vs. monocultures.

The role of different agroforestry systems in the conservation of plant diversity and forest structure has not been directly compared in many agricultural dominated landscapes. In this study, we investigated tree diversity and forest structure in a complex agroforestry landscape traditionally grown for cocoa and mixed food crops and compared these to the natural forest in southeastern Ghana. The study

The second edition of Miguel Altieri's 'Agroecology' is a very useful guide to some of the more recent developments in sustainable or ecologically oriented agriculture. The book is in five parts: Part One, The Theoretical Basis of Agricultural Ecology consists of three chapters: The Evolution of Agroecological Thought by Susanna B. Hecht, The Methodology and Practice of Agroecology by Richard P. Norgaard and Thomas O.

This paper reports the study conducted in Italy, within the AGFORWARD (2014-2017) project, aimed at promoting innovative agroforestry practices in Europe. Agroforestry offers a means of maintaining food production whilst addressing some of the negative environmental effects of intensive agriculture. This study aims at eliciting the positive and negative points of views and perceptions of local stakeholders in Italy in relation to three types of agroforestry system. The Participatory Research and Network Development (PRDN) was implemented in three workshops conducted in Sardinia, Umbria, and Veneto regions, and applied adopting a common methodological protocol. Qualitative data were obtained using open discussions with stakeholders on key issues, challenges and innovations. Quantitative data were obtained from stakeholders completing questionnaires during the workshops. A statistical analysis was applied to elicit the differences in positive and negative perceptions of the stakeholders in relation to production, management, environment and socio-economy aspects. Even though the participants to this study came from different geographical and socioeconomic contexts with different educational and cultural backgrounds, they generally shared similar perceptions of the benefits and constraints of across different professional groups (farmers, policy makers and researchers) and the three workshops. The effects of agroforestry on production and the environment were generally perceived as positive, whilst those related to management were generally negative. The process of bringing the groups together seemed to be an effective means of identifying the key researchable gaps that need to be addressed in order to promote the uptake and maintenance of agroforestry.

Reforestation programs are a common policy response among developing country governments in the tropics attempting to deal with environmental and economic problems caused by widespread deforestation. The objective of this paper is to examine participation by small-and medium-sized farms in two reforestation programs undertaken in recent years by one country, Costa Rica, which has been at the forefront of developing country environmental protection efforts. Analysis of a survey of 243 program participants and non-participants shows that farm households participating in reforestation programs had generally larger farm sizes, were dedicated to low labor-intensive, land-extensive agricultural activities, faced significant family on-farm labor constraints, were more heavily dependent on off-farm income sources, and had more extensive contact with local extension efforts. Logistic regression is employed to econometrically identify demographic, economic, and land use determinants of farm household participation in reforestation programs; the implications of these findings are analyzed. The limitations of reforestation programs, especially with regard to management factors and quality of reforested plots, are reviewed. Implications for improving the efficiency of reforestation programs and the merits of other policy alternatives are also discussed.

This study examined the hypothesis that incorporation of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.) (gliricidia), a fastgrowing, nitrogen-fixing tree, into agroforestry systems in southern Malawi may be used to increase the input of organic fertilizer and reduce the need for expensive inorganic fertilizers. The productivity of maize (Zea mays L.), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) and gliricidia grown as sole stands or in mixed cropping systems was examined at Makoka Research Station (latitude 15 • 30 S, longitude 35 • 15 E) and a nearby farm site at Nazombe between 1996 and 2000. Treatments included gliricidia intercropped with maize, with or without pigeonpea, and sole stands of gliricidia, maize and pigeonpea. Trees in the agroforestry systems were pruned before and during the cropping season to provide green leaf manure. Maize yields and biomass production by each component were determined and fractional light interception was measured during the reproductive stage of maize. Substantial quantities of green leaf manure (2.4 to 9.0 Mg ha −1 year −1 ) were produced from the second or third year after tree establishment. Green leaf manure and fuelwood production were greatest when gliricidia was grown as unpruned sole woodlots (c. 8.0 and 22 Mg ha −1 year −1 respectively). Improvements in maize yield in the tree-based systems also became significant in the third year, when c. 3.0 Mg ha −1 of grain was obtained. Tree-based cropping systems were most productive and exhibited greater fractional light interception (c. 0.6 to 0.7) than cropping systems without trees (0.1 to 0.4). No beneficial influence of pigeonpea on maize performance was apparent either in the presence or absence of gliricidia at either site in most seasons. However, as unpruned gliricidia provided the greatest interception of incident solar radiation (>0.9), coppicing may be required to reduce shading when gliricidia is grown together with maize. As pigeonpea production was unaffected by the presence of gliricidia, agroforestry systems containing gliricidia might be used to replace traditional maize + pigeonpea systems in southern Malawi.

Quantity of litter fall, its chemical composition, nutrient addition and changes in chemical constituents of soil were studied under agroforestry systems involving Populus deltoides and Eucalyptus hybrid tree with intercrops of Cymbopogon martinii Wats and Cymbopogon flexuosus Wats in the tarai tract of Kumaon hills of U.P. India. P. deltoides had significantly more diameter (63%) as compared to E. hybrid. There was decrease in herb (5.4%) and oil yield (15.4%) of grasses due to trees, but both the grasses did not affect the performance of trees. On an average, dry litter production of P. deltoides was 5.0 kg tree−1 year−1 where as of E. hybrid 1.5 kg tree−1 year−1. The litter of P. deltoides contained 1.3 times more N and 1.5 times P and K of E. hybrid. Addition of N, P and K through P. deltoides litter was 36.6, 91.6, and 69.9 per cent more than E. hybrid litter, respectively. Under these two canopies soil organic carbon was enhanced by 33.3 to 83.3 per cent, available N by 38.1 to 68.9 per cent, available P by 3.4 to 32.8 per cent and available K by 5.8 to 24.3 per cent over control (no tree canopy) in 0—15cm layer. P. deltoides plantation was superior to E. hybrib in enriching the soil.

In agroforestry, marketing is unique for several reasons: many products typically lack established marketing institutions, market information, and grade or quality standards. All that is known about the market for many agroforestry specialty products is that someone is growing the product and consumers are buying it. What happens to the product as it moves through the value chain from producer to consumer is unknown, the 'black box' of agroforestry markets. To shed light on the black box and stimulate adoption of agroforestry practices, successful marketing strategies must be developed. Porter's 'Five Forces Model' is presented as a viable approach to explore the competitive environment of unexplored markets. The Five Forces Model looks at the underlying fundamentals of competition that are independent of the specific strategies used by market competitors including: (1) potential entrants; (2) suppliers; (3) buyers; (4) substitutes; and (5) industry competitors. By understanding the competitive forces within an industry, market strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats can be identified and successful strategies can be developed. Standard marketing methods are highlighted to guide the development of specialty product market strategies. Woody florals research is described to illustrate a successful approach to agroforestry niche market development. Results of eastern red cedar market research are presented to illustrate use of the Five Forces Model as a framework for producers to look critically at potential markets and successfully identify opportunities, develop strategies, and avoid pitfalls. The information presented attempts to go beyond identification of the market participants (who, what and where) and seeks to identify the forces (how and why) of agroforestry markets.

Ambiguity in the potential of soils under Imperata cylindrica grass contributes to the slow pace of grassland development in Northeast Luzon. The aim of this study is to investigate the soil properties of Imperata grassland and the prospects for tree-based farming systems in northeastern Luzon. Soils are developed over Miocene-Pliocene sedimentary rock and Plio-Pleistocene volcanic and fluvial deposits. There is

Most studies undertaken in the field of agroforestry have focussed on system design, soil fertility management, and system interactions. Less emphasis has been placed on biodiversity aspects. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential of indigenous, multistrata agroforests for maintaining native woody species diversity in the southeastern Rift Valley escarpment, Ethiopia. A total of 60 farms, representing three agroforest types (enset-AF, enset-coffee-AF and fruit-coffee-AF), were randomly selected along altitudinal gradients. Enset (Ensete ventricosum) is a perennial, herbaceous monocarpic banana-like plant which serves as a food plant in Ethiopia. The three agroforests are results of the domestication of natural forests and intensification of the landuse systems centuries ago. Sample-based assessment protocols were employed to place sample quadrats and to measure all individuals in the quadrats. A total of 58 woody species, belonging to 49 genera and 30 families, was recorded. Of all woody species identified, 86% were native. The highest proportion of native woody species was recorded in enset-AF (92%), followed by enset-coffee-AF (89%) and fruit-coffee-AF (82%). Among native tree species, Millettia ferruginea and Cordia africana were the most widespread. In all, 22 native woody species were recorded as of interest for conservation, acccording to IUCN Red lists and local criteria. Among them, Pygeum africanum and Rhus glutinosa were categorised as vulnerable in the wild, and in need of conservation priority. The introduction of non-native fruit trees in agroforests can be a threat to maintenance of native woody species. Management strategies favoring enset and coffee will also put other native tree species at risk. A smaller number of native woody species was recorded in fruitcoffee-AF, but a higher mean basal area and stem number. The mean basal area and stem number ranged from 5.4 ± 0.5 to 11.7 ± 1.0 m 2 ha-1 and 625 ± 84 to 1,505 ± 142 stems ha-1 , respectively. Altitude explained 68 and 71% of the variation in species richness and abundance, respectively. Finally, it is concluded that recognition of the indigenous agroforestry system as an option for maintaining native woody species should be given more attention, to counteract the local threat of these species from the wild.

Ground water table (g.w.t.) levels were measured twice a month for 2 years in 50 observation wells installed inside and outside the two 18-year-old and 350 m apart plantations of Eucalyptus tereticornis (Mysure gum) at Dhob-Bhali research plot located in Rohtak district of Haryana state (north-west India). Throughout the study, the g.w.t. underneath the plantations remained lower than the g.w.t. in the adjacent fields. The average g.w.t. in the plantations was 4.95 m and the average g.w.t. in the control located in adjacent fields was 4.04 m. Interestingly, the spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the adjacent fields was up to a distance of more than 730 m from the edge of a plantation. Drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due to the effect of a plantation was similar to the cone of depression of a pumping well and the drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due to the joint effect of both the plantations was similar to the combined cone of depression of two pumping wells. There was no correlation between soil salinity and the g.w.t. The fluctuations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations in g.w.t. salinity in the plantation as well as in the adjacent fields, but there was no net increase in g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation. Sinker roots of Eucalyptus tree reached the zone of capillary fringe up to a depth of 4.40 m, indicating that the Eucalyptus trees were absorbing capillary water of the g.w.t. Thus, in shallow g.w.t. areas of semi-arid regions with alluvial sandy loam soils, the plantations of E. tereticornis act as bio-pumps and therefore, we recommend closely spaced parallel strip plantations of this species for the reclamation of waterlogged areas.

Smallholder agroforestry (tree farming) systems are prominent compo-nents of ‘trees outside the forest’. They are primarily ‘planted’ systems that rehabilitate or reforest marginal lands, both private and public, where crop production is no longer biophysically or economically via-ble. While smallholder agroforestry systems vary greatly, most are tree-rich, species-rich systems that produce agricultural and tree products for both home use and market sale. The market orientation of smallholder systems has strengthened greatly over the last 10 to 20 years. Local, na-tional and international markets are all supplied by smallholder agrofor-estry systems. Smallholder systems produce 90% of the global produc-tion of cacao, three-quarters of rubber, two-thirds of coffee, approxi-mately 40% of oil palm and 25% of tea. Smallholder systems also pro-vide valuable environmental services, including soil fertility replenish-ment, watershed protection, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conserva-tion and land rehabilitation. The hypothesis of this thesis is that smallholder tree-farming systems are viable agricultural and natural resources management systems that contribute significantly to global environmental goals and local econom-ic objectives. The thesis supports the hypothesis by reviewing global and Asian trends of deforestation, human population growth, and demand for forest and tree products. The potential of smallholder tree-based sys-tems to expand regional forest resources, produce forest products and services, and contribute to local livelihoods for rural communities is re-viewed. Strategies to transform traditional smallholder systems into mar-ket-oriented systems to better serve environmental and economic goals are also assessed. The five papers included in the thesis specifically address the capaci-ty of smallholder systems to store carbon; the appropriateness of small-holder systems for carbon projects; the types of technical assistance and enabling conditions that facilitate the successful development of small-holder systems; how genetic diversity of smallholder systems supports adaptation to climate change; and the capacity of smallholder systems to simultaneously produce marketable timber and agricultural crops. Most of the research presented in this thesis was conducted in Indo-nesia and the Philippines. However, the results and conclusions are ap-plicable to the wide range of biophysical and socioeconomic conditions under which smallholder agroforestry systems are found in Southeast Asia and throughout the tropics. The discussion and assertions of the thesis are supported with relevant literature, including the candidate’s past and ongoing research. The thesis concludes with recommendations for future work required to strengthen the recognition of smallholder tree-based systems as important contributors to global environmental goals and local economic objectives.

The browse potential of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and thornless honey locust [Gleditsia triacanthos f. inermis (L.) Zabel] has not been adequately tested. Our objective was to determine effects of fertilization and pollarding on biomass and foliar nutritive value in separate studies of black locust and thornless honey locust in Arkansas, USA. Shoots were sampled monthly for two consecutive growing seasons in 2002 and 2003 to determine foliar, shoot, and total aboveground biomass, shoot basal diameter, and foliar nutritive value (crude protein and in vitro digestibility). Black locust yielded more foliar biomass when pollarded at 50 or 100 cm and fertilized with 600 kg P ha À1 , than at 5 cm with or without P, averaging 3.5 Mg dry matter ha À1 . Black locust foliar crude protein and in vitro dry matter digestibility ( £170 and 534 g kg À1 , respectively) decreased as leaves aged, but still met maintenance needs for beef cattle (Bos taurus L.). Thornless honey locust had little agronomic potential because of slow establishment, low foliar yield (330 kg ha À1 ), and a 2% reversion to undesirable thorny phenotype. Black locust should be considered for livestock browse when drought induces semi-dormancy of herbaceous forages.

Survival and growth data (ages 0-5 years) are presented for two timber species (Acacia mangium, Cordia alliodora) planted in monocultures or in association with a sequence of agricultural crops Zea mays, Zingiber officinale and Eugenia stipitata (a fruit shrub) in the tropical humid Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica. Average annual height and diameter growth rates were 3.2 m and 4.0 cm (C. alliodora), 3.5 m and 3.8 cm (A. mangium). C. alliodora associated with crops gave the greatest productivity with an average total stem volume increment of 19 m 3 ha-~ yr-~. Root rot of A. mangium (mainly Rosellinia sp.), leading to tree mortality, was greater in pure plots compared to associated plots. A. mangium can not be recommended for similar sites because of this problem.

Rights over trees are often distinct from rights over land. Tree tenure consists of a bundle of rights over trees and their produce which may be held by different people at different times. These rights include the right to own or inherit trees, the right to plant trees~ the right to use trees and tree products, the right to dispose of trees and the right to exclude others from the use of trees and tree products. Factors affecting who had what rights include the nature of the tree, the nature of the use and the nature of the person or group. Landowners and tree plants tend to be relatively advantaged in terms of their rights to trees. Those with temporary claims to the land and, in some case, women, tend to be disadvantaged. The implications of tree tenure issues for the design of agroforestry projects are discussed.

Agroforestry is one of the most conspicuous land use systems across landscapes and agro ecological zones in Africa. Some of the components of Agroforestry systems are; home garden agroforestry, alley cropping, forest farming, wind break, river banks, park land, crop land trees and buffer zones agroforestry practices. Climate change impacts by complex weather-related phenomena have threatened agricultural and forest ecosystems and the livelihood of agricultural and local communities. Agroforestry has an important role in climate change adaptation through diversified land-use practices, sustainable livelihoods, sources of income, enhanced forest and agricultural productivity and reduced weather-related production losses, which enhance resilience against climate impacts. Like few other land use options, agroforestry has real potential to contribute to food security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, while preserving and strengthening the environmental resource base of Africa’s ...

Napier grass strips are gaining some acceptance in Southeast Asia as a vegetative means of soil erosion control, due to the relative ease of establishment and management. In addition, the napier grass strips aid productivity of agroforestry systems by providing mulch or by being fed to livestock. In this paper, a bioeconomic comparison of different ways of utilising the napier grass cuttings is undertaken. The three uses examined for the cuttings were: as mulch in the alley areas, sold as fodder, and fed to animals with manure applied back to the system. The analysis linked the soils-oriented SCUAF model with economic and animal component models. SCUAF was parameterized using field data based on farmer interviews and field visits. Farmer interviews and field visits were conducted at Claveria, Misamis Oriental to gather additional data regarding costs and returns associated with animal production, and also to obtain the farm gate price of napier. Predicted biophysical results produced by the SCUAF model showed that application of napier grass cuttings, back into the system, directly as mulch or indirectly as animal manure resulted in higher maize and napier yields, lower soil erosion rates, and less of a reduction in soil mineral nitrogen and soil labile carbon levels. The comparison was made with the case where napier was sold off-farm as fodder. Cost-benefit analysis showed that higher economic returns were gained when napier grass cuttings were fed to animals, rather than applied directly as mulch. This economic benefit was attributed to the draught and transport services rendered by the animal and to a change in the value of the animals. This analysis highlights the value of utilizing animals within a napier grass strip system for control of erosion.

The nearly complete removal of forest cover from China's northern plains before the renewal of household incentives and subsequent reforestation in the late 1970s provides an unusual broad-scale opportunity to examine the impact of forest-based environmental services on long-term agricultural productivity. This paper uses a Cobb-Douglas agricultural production function with a measure of forest cover as a production shifter to test the hypothesis that forestrelated environmental services make a positive contribution to agricultural output. Our evidence for Shandong province shows that agroforestry activities rapidly produced approximately ten percent increases in agricultural productivity -and their contribution probably has not reached its limit. The relevance of this finding goes beyond China's agriculture to the broader question of how world agricultural production can be sustained in the long-run -after the possible exhaustion of the contributions of current institutions and farming systems. If the opportunities for expanding the agricultural land base and for multiple cropping are small, and if ever more labor must be squeezed into the agricultural sector, then what can contribute to agricultural growth? One answer must lie in improvements to the agricultural environment, and trees may be a part of this improvement.

A cross-sectional survey on 41 farms followed by six weeks monitoring of dairy cattle feeding on ten smallholder dairy farms in central Kenya was conducted to investigate the use, availability and quality of dry season feed resources. Fodder production was largely from Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) grown on small plots and contour strips where it acts both as a fodder source as well as a biological barrier to soil erosion. There is a need to broaden the choice of fodder crops on such farms to provide a wide range of harvesting management options and to avoid total loss in case of pest or disease outbreaks. Intercropping of Napier grass with leguminous fodder trees could boost the quantity and quality of herbage production especially during the dry season. Roughage from a variety of sources was utilised during the dry season in addition to Napier grass. Among the herbages, leguminous feeds had the lowest potential dry matter degradability while weeds harvested from cropland and roadsides had the highest. Energy and protein intake from the roughage fed to grade dairy cattle during the dry season may be insufficient to meet the requirements of these animals due to the high levels of fibre concentration (acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent fibre (ADF and NDF)) in them. It is recommended that the scope for alternative sources of improved roughage such as Napier/ calliandra mixtures, to boost the energy, protein and overall dry matter provision on the farms should be investigated further.

The objective of this text is to support reforestation, rewilding, and bioremediation as an end-game environmental practice to abate atmospheric carbon and associated global pollutants. That goal includes restoring health to wild landscapes and their ecosystems while evolving an ecoDialectical praxis applicable to agroforestry, city reforestation, and metabolic architectures. The text charts a 2.7 hectare (6.6 acre) locality in Tarragona, Spain currently testing land occupancy, wilding, and ecological strategies. The experiment is emerging from Jonathan Minchin’s mixture of eco policies, appropriate technologies, and land stewardship. It involves computational generation, robotics, and AI as well as old and new agricultural methods for land/biodiversity oversight. Secondly, the experiment is dialectically anchored and extended from research in metabolic architectures vis-a-vis autopoiesis, Marxism, observation, design, bacterial deployment, and AI. The seemingly hopeless trajectory of survival — bioremedially thriving in the Anthropocene — now requires knowing history, synthetic biology, and microbial intelligences in order to potentially repair or reorient the situation wrought by climate change. To this task, Minchin’s site participates in dialectics-of-nature focused on agriculture, reforestation, and architectural tactics to come to grips with climate disruption. Further, with respect to these topics, environmental/design theory should be updated to reference Engels’s Dialectics of Nature for reforestation, rewilding, and bioremediation and then paired with citizen ecology, implemented in wildernesses and urbanisms guided by thinking, labor, technology, and computation.

In scientific agricultural practices, agroforestry systems are getting wide recognition due to its healthy integration of woody perennial trees, herbaceous crops and livestock in unit areas which are socially acceptable, economically viable and ecologically sound. In the tropics, agroforestry system has been well-established practise varies significantly from region to region depending on the level of management inputs, structure and function of woody perennials, as well as environmental and ecological fitness of the system. The most common practices in the tropics include; improved fallow, allay cropping, multifunctional trees on farms and rangeland, home gardens, windbreaks, shelterbelts, silvopastoral grazing system, taungya farming and shaded perennial-crop system. The above-mentioned system has been well known for its potential in improving and sustaining agricultural production through increased soil fertility, climate change amelioration, breaking the current challenge of food insecurity and poverty circles, besides raising the livelihood of rural poor owing to diverse products derived from the systems such as food, fuelwood, timber and source of income. Poor policy, ineffective governance, less adaptability of systems by farmers due to unawareness is the major constraints behind the success of agroforestry systems. In this context, a better and effective R&D along with scientific management of agroforestry practices not only promotes agroforestry systems but also promise better resource conservation along with maintaining soil-food-climate security at the global scale.

The CO2FIX model is a tool or
software, which is extensively used for
assessing baseline carbon as well as estimating
carbon sequestration potential (CSP) of any
land-use systems, more particularly the
potentiality of every individual component
(i.e., trees, shrubs, agricultural crops or
pastures, soil, etc.). This tool is not only can
quantify the carbon stock, but also can
quantify the C-fluxes in the biomass of any
land-use systems, soil organic matter and also
can quantify the C-fluxes in wood products
chain. Moreover, this model can simulate the
result for “n” numbers of years and can
estimate the prediction values. Hence, this
tool can be a very useful to the forester,
scientists, researchers and academician in
estimating the CSP of any system and it’s
future predictions in terms of carbon stock and
fluxes.

Growing agricultural crops under Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Baker, a tree that is endemic to Ethiopia, is an age-old practice in the country, but the beneficial effects of the tree on crops have not been scientifically quantified. To achieve this, four isolated and ...

This review describes those mechanisms by which wind directly affects crop growth rates and hence yields. Wind-induced plant movement is capable of altering growth rates and leaf morphology, although this is unlikely to be a major cause of growth differences between sheltered and unsheltered crops grown outdoors. The wind's force can tear leaves or strip them from the plant. Dense plant canopies may suffer abrasion through intermittent or constant rubbing. Soil particles lifted into suspension by the wind have the potential to abrade and damage plant tissue. The wind's force can physically knock plants over, making crops difficult to harvest. Each of these mechanisms operates at a particular time of the growing season. Recovery, and hence final yield, depends on the growth stage and soil/plant moisture status when the damage occurred, the particular species and variety as well as the preceding and subsequent weather. The fact that damage effects are so dependent on the crop and the past weather makes modelling and any simple synthesis of direct wind effects difficult. The most common forms of damage likely in Australia's agricultural regions are from sandblasting and lodging. These damage events will be intermittent -their frequency depending on the local climate. Leaf tearing is likely in broad-leafed horticultural crops, and growth effects are also likely in any windy location. It is not possible to predict what the impact of this damage, and other direct effects, will be on final yields, Based on the results in the literature, protection from damage offered by windbreaks may have as large an effect on yields as incremental microclimate benefits.

Considerable resources have been expended promoting hedgerow intercropping with shrub legumes to farmers in the Philippine uplands. Despite the resources committed to research and extension, persistent adoption by farmers has been limited to low cost ...