Plant Ecology

A phylogeny based on nrITS1 and trnL-F sequences resolves the Lejeunea tumida species group polyphyletic with individuals belonging in two clades either side of the basal-most node within Lejeunea. It is impossible for the Lejeunea tumida species group to be more polyphyletic and still be attributed to the same genus under the existing generic classification. A simulation-based approach to testing the null hypothesis of group monophyly rejects this at the P < 0.01 level of significance. Bayesian tests find very strong support for polyphyly, given the data. The monophyly of L. tumida s.s. + L. colensoana is fully supported; however, although Lejeunea tumida s.s. is nested within L. colensoana, this position is not supported. Both L. oracola and L. rhigophila are resolved as monophyletic. Whereas there is moderate support for the monophyly of L. rhigophila, there is no support for the monophyly of L. oracola. Neither is the monophyly of L. oracola + L. rhigophila supported in Bayesian or parsimony analysis.

Dispersal is an important ecological process that affects plant population structure and community composition. Invasive plants with fleshy fruits rapidly form associations with native and invasive dispersers, and may affect existing native plant-disperser associations. We asked whether frugivore visitation rate and fruit removal was associated with plant characteristics in a community of fleshy-fruited plants and whether an invasive plant receives more visitation and greater fruit removal than native plants in a semi-arid habitat of Andhra Pradesh, India. Tree-watches were undertaken at individuals of nine native and one invasive shrub species to assess the identity, number and fruit removal by avian frugivores. Network analyses and generalised linear mixed-effects models were used to understand species and community-level patterns. All plants received most number of visits from abundant, generalist avian frugivores. Number of frugivore visits and time spent by frugivores at individual plants was positively associated with fruit crop size, while fruit removal was positively associated with number of frugivore visits and their mean foraging time at individual plants. The invasive shrub, Lantana camara L. (Lantana), had lower average frugivore visit rate than the community of fleshy-fruited plants and received similar average frugivore visits but greater average per-hour fruit removal than two other concurrently fruiting native species. Based on the results of our study, we infer that there is little evidence of competition between native plants and Lantana for the dispersal services of native frugivores and that more data are required to assess the nature of these interactions over the long term. We speculate that plant associations with generalist frugivores may increase the functional redundancy of this frugivory network, buffering it against loss of participating species.

From ecodelic triplit, the peyoteros’ sense of place, interspecies communication and animistic healing to ecocentric entheogenic rituals, psychedelic bioregionalism, biogenetic structuralist ecopsychology and transpersonal ecosophy – this special issue of the EJE explores the verdant intersection between neurobiology and botany, shamanism and animism, and psychology and ecology, fusing mind with Nature in a boiling cauldron full of entheogenic insight.

Permakültür Bahçeleri, hayal gücünüzü harekete geçirerek, permakültürün en temel mesajını okurlara ulaştırıyor: Doğaya karşı değil onunla birlikte çalışırsak daha güzel, daha bereketli ve daha bağışlayıcı bahçeler yaratabiliriz. Toby Hemenway’in gösterdiği gibi işbirliği içinde çalışabilen ve;
Toprağın verimliliğini ve yapısını geliştirmek ve korumak,
Peyzajın içinde suyu yakalamak ve sudan tasarruf etmek,
Faydalı böcekler, hayvanlar ve insanlar için habitat sağlamak,
Mevsimsel meyveler, yemişler ve diğer gıdalar üreten yenebilir bir “orman” yaratmak
gibi çeşitli işlevler üstlenen bitkileri topluluklar şeklinde bir araya getirerek arka bahçenizde bir ekosistem yaratmak hem kolay hem de tatmin edici bir uğraştır.
Bu gözden geçirilmiş ve güncellenmiş baskıya, yetiştirme alanları çok kısıtlı olan kentte ya da banliyöde yaşayan insanlar için özel olarak tasarlanmış, kentsel permakültür üzerine yeni bir bölüm de eklenmiştir. Elinizdeki bahçe ya da tarla ne büyüklükte olursa olsun permakültürün temel ilkelerini uygulayarak orayı daha çeşitli, daha doğal, daha üretken ve daha güzel hale getirebilirsiniz.

“Permakültür Bahçeleri kesinlikle bugüne kadar yazılmış en iyi permakültür kitabı ve bugüne kadar yazılmış en iyi bahçıvanlık kitabı olmaya da aday. Herkesin kütüphanesinde bulunmalı.
Sharon Astyk
Depletion and Abundance: Life on the New Home Front’un yazarı

“Dünyaya geldiğimizde bize bir kullanma kılavuzu vermedikleri için arada bir bazı bilge kişilerin kılavuzlar yazması büyük bir hizmet.  Permakültür Bahçeleri  bunların en önemlilerinden biri ve geleceğin dünyası için kesinlikle ihtiyaç duyacağımız bir kitap.”
Bill McKibben
Deep Economy ve Hope, Human and Wild’ın yazarı

“Toby Hemenway’in Permakültür Bahçeleri adlı eseri uygulama ile vizyonerliği birleştiren, insanların rakibi değil parçası olduğu ekosistemleri güçlendirmek ve hayatta tutmak için Yeryüzü’nün simbiyotik topluluklarının doğal zekâsını kullanan bahçıvanlar ve peyzajcılar için tarihi bir dönüm noktası. Doğa ile uyum içinde nasıl yaşayabileceğimizi ve böyle yaşamak zorunda olduğumuzu gösteren muhteşem bir eser!”
Paul Stamets
Mycellium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World’ün yazarı

“Permakültür bahçeleri artık geleceğe dair hayaller değiller. Buradalar ve yaşıyorlar. Permakültür Bahçeleri  evlerinin bahçesini sağlıklı, sürüdürülebilir ve şifalı hale getirmek isteyen herkes için aydınlatıcı ve mutlaka okunması gereken bir kaynak.”
Robert Kourik
Designing and Maintaining Your Edible Lanscape—Naturally’nin yazarı

Savruk bir tüketici değil sürdürülebilir bir üretici olun. Bu muhteşem kitap size bunu nasıl yapcağınızı, harika arka bahçe ekosistemleri yaratmada ve geliştirmekte yardımcı olarak gösteriyor. Bu kitaptaki bilgileri uygulayın ve hem kendi topluluğunuzu hem de daha ötesini olumlu yönde değiştirecek bir örnek olmaya başlayın. En güzeli de bu kitapla bunu yapmanın çok kolay, ilginç ve eğlenceli olması.
Brad Lanchaster
Rainwater Harvesting  for Drylands and Beyond’un yazarı

Permakültür Bahçeleri’nde o kadar büyük bir bilgelik var ki hakkını vermek için bir düzine köşe yazısı yazmam gerek. Cesur, etkileyici, doğayı kucaklayan ve tamamen mantıklı bir gelecek vizyonu.
Justin Siskin
Los Angeles Daily News yazarı

The paper describes studies of post-fire succession in heathland vegetation in N.E. Scotland, dominated by Calluna vulgaris. A preliminary model (Legg, 1978) suggested good agreement between simulation of succession on the basis ofa Markov chain and observations of stands at different stages of development after burning, at least in the earlier stages. Vegetation transitions are currently being recorded in permanent plots on burnt areas. First results confirm the view that (a) the post-fire succession has the properties ofa Markov process, (b) this type of model remains valid when constructed from records of actual transitions, rather than data obtained by inference from evidence of transition. Comparing successional events in stands where, at the time of burning, the Calluna population was in pioneer-, building-, mature-and degenerate phases, shows that transition matrices generally agree with the Markov hypothesis, but not in the case of stands where Calluna was degenerate when burnt. The composition of establishing vegetation ! year after fire is not confined to species normally associated with the early stages of succession, but reflects the composition of the stand before burning. Redevelopment after fire is described in terms of an initial floristic composition of species with strategies permitting early re-establishment, selected by the recurrence of the fire factor. Subsequent transitions represent changes in their relative abundance due to differing growth properties and competitive interactions. This interpretation applies only under conditions of recurrent incidence of fire (normally once in 10-15 yr). If fire does not recur, Calluna stands pass into the degenerate phase, where changes in the nature of relay floristics may come into play (e.g. with tree colonization).

In the Andes of Central Chile, flowering commences 1–2 months earlier on equatorial-(north-) facing than on polar-(south-) facing slopes, and pollinator assemblages also differ between these habitats. In order to understand the potential influence of these differences on gene flow, we monitored flowering periods and insect visitation rates to flowers of 60 individuals of Anarthrophyllum cumingii (Papilionaceae) on two equatorial-and two polar-facing slopes in the Andes of central Chile (33 35 0 S;70 32 0 W). Flowering began about 30 days earlier on equatorial-facing slopes. Flowering periods of individuals on slopes with the same aspect had a mean overlap of 0.52, while those on opposite slopes had a mean overlap of 0.15. On equatorial-facing slopes Yramea lathionoides (Lepidoptera) accounted for 60% of the visits to flowers of A. cumingii, while on polar-facing slopes Centris cineraria (Hymenoptera) was responsible for more than 80% of flower visits. Average similarities of visitor assemblages among individual plants on slopes with the same aspect was 0.83, while the mean similarity between individuals on opposite slopes was only 0.23. Within slopes fluorescent dyes were dispersed up to 40 m from the donor plants, but there was no movements of dyes between individuals growing on opposite slopes, even when they were separated by less than 10 m. Synchronous blooming and a common pollen vector are necessary conditions for pollen exchange between individuals. The overall probability of pollen exchange estimated by multiplying the inter-individual overlap for both factors, was nearly 0.5 for individuals growing on slopes with the same aspect, and less than 0.04 for individuals growing on opposite slopes. Consequently, at equivalent distances, the probability of pollen exchange between individuals growing on slopes of opposite aspect is more than 10-times lower than between those growing on the same slopes. Seed dispersal cannot compensate for restricted gene flow through pollination, because seeds of A. cumingii were dispersed less than 2 m away from a parent plant. Presumably, restricted gene flow could enhance genetic divergence between populations on slopes of contrasting aspects. This factor could be important in contributing to the high diversity and endemism in the Chilean Andes.

Guggul - an oleo-resin gum of immense medicinal value is tapped from a bushy shrub Commiphora wightii (Arnott) Bhandari distributed in semi-arid and rocky regions in Indian sub continent. C. wightii is an IUCN data deficient plant. Increase in the annual demand of guggul gum to the tune of 1000 metric ton, there is an increase in destructive tapping of C. wightii, which is a serious concern. Generally guggul gum from the site of its tapping to the site of processing or value addition being distantly far off, improper post harvest handling, storage and transport results in qualitative loss of its crucial bio-active compounds. Among the four containers (earthen clay pot, plastic jar, polythene bag and jute bag) evaluated for long term storage of guggul the earthen clay pot was the best in terms of Total Guggulsterone (TG) content. In earthen clay pot the TG of guggul gum was maintained over 1% for four months while Total Volatile Oils (TVO) 1% for nine months. In jute bag TG rapidly d...

Human activities have been and are continuing to change the environment on local and global
scales. Many of these alterations are  leading to dramatic changes  in the  biotic structure and
composition  of  ecological  communities(Hooper  et  al,  2005). The  biodiversity-productivity
relationship is foundational to understanding the global extinction crisis and its impacts on the
functioning of natural ecosystems(Liang et al, 2016a).
In African countries where demographic and socio-economic constraints  mean that agrarian
systems  lack  inputs  (Diallo  et  al,  2008).  Thus,  this  global  crisis  mainly  affects  arable
land(Louppe & Ouattara, 1997a). To counter this and to promote sustainable agriculture, crop
residues  represent  an  important  source  of  nutrients  for  cropping  systems(Samba,  2001).
Moreover, the introduction of trees with agronomic interests represents another alternative in
the  fertilization  of  soils  without  the  use  of  chemical  fertilizers.  In  Africa,  the  tree  plays  an
important role in traditional land-use systems. The mechanical effect of its roots fixed the soil
and the decomposition of its litter often constitutes the main source of nutrients for the growth
of  plants(Switzer  &  Nelson,  1972)  and  allows  to  maintain  the  biological  life  in  the  soil.
Nutrients are essential in the vegetative cycle or in the reproduction of plants(Cecillon et al,
2009). By incorporating soil litter and the formation of stable aggregates, a mixture of organic
matter and clay particles, soil organisms contribute to the creation of the lumpy soil structure.
This  landfill  burial  activity  results  in  the  creation  of  humus,  the  subsequent  degradation  of
which contributes to the release of minerals directly assimilable to plants. The fertility of these
soils depends  mainly on the rate of  decomposition of the plant litter  (Samba, 2001) and the
recirculation of its components under the action of these organisms. The reintroduction of the
tree into these production systems is therefore one of the fundamental conditions for restoring
the fertility of tropical soils. It is on the basis of this strategy that we must create sustainable
agriculture at the level of Moroccan lands.

Summary1. Calcareous grasslands are communities of high conservation value, often characterized by high plant species richness. These grasslands have experienced a major decline in area throughout Europe, principally resulting from agricultural intensification. Although they have been the focus of extensive previous research, few attempts have been made to examine the long-term dynamics of multiple communities at the landscape scale.2. To assess long-term change in the structure and composition of a calcareous grassland metacommunity, 88 extant sites first surveyed by R. Good in the 1930s were resurveyed in 2009. Values of α-, β- and γ-diversity were compared between the two surveys, using a one-way analysis of similarity (ANOSIM) and non-metric multidimensional scaling. Elements of metacommunity structure (EMS) analysis was used to identify metacommunity structure, and changes in metacommunity composition were related to plant traits.3. Analyses indicated that α-diversity increased...

The plant hormone auxin drives plant growth and morphogenesis. The levels and distribution of the active auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) are tightly controlled through synthesis, inactivation, and transport. Many auxin precursors and modified auxin forms, used to regulate auxin homeostasis, have been identified; however, very little is known about the integration of multiple auxin biosynthesis and inactivation pathways. This review discusses the many ways auxin levels are regulated through biosynthesis, storage forms, and inactivation, and the potential roles modified auxins play in regulating the bioactive pool of auxin to affect plant growth and development.

The leaf properties and construction costs (CC) are reported for eight indigenous heath (kerangas) forest species and three invasive (exotic) species of Acacia. Both groups of species co-occur and colonise disturbed lowland tropical heath rainforest habitats in Brunei, Borneo Island. Across species, CC mass-based increased with nitrogen (N) and heat of combustion (H C ), and decreased with ash content. CC area-based showed similar trends (although weaker in strength) in addition to significant positive correlation with leaf mass per unit area (LMA). Within the native species, the CCs of the shrub and small tree species were lower and significantly different from those of medium-sized tree species. Given the invasive success of the three acacias, it is hypothesised that these species may require less energy for biomass construction than do the native species. Within similar life growth form, no difference in CC mass-based was detected between the native trees and the invasive acacias. For CC area-based, the invasive Acacia species had a higher value. These findings failed to uphold our hypothesis. LMA and leaf N and phosphorus (P), but not potassium (K), were higher in the invasive acacias. The higher N and LMA could have been the cause of higher CC area-based in the invasive acacias. From the ordination of 11 species on the basis of leaf properties, the invasive and native species are more likely to be found in different groupings-although some native species seem more affiliated with the invasive than with their own guild, especially Alphitonia and Macaranga.

Potassium (K) as a macro nutrient governs important physiological mechanisms ensuring optimum plant growth and produce quality. An experiment was conducted during the summer of 2017 to study the effects of potassium application on maize under high nitrogen (N) nutrition with optimum and reduced irrigations. The experiment was comprised of three factors, viz. two irrigation levels (optimum, reduced), three potassium levels (80, 120 and 160 kg ha-1) and four nitrogen levels (100, 150, 200 and 250 kg ha-1). Two separate trials were carried out in randomized complete block design (RCBD), one under optimum (five irrigations) and another under reduced irrigation (three irrigations). One control plot (0K, 0N) was used under each replication for both trials. Optimum irrigation had resulted in maximum days of tasseling, silking, physiological maturity, crop growth rate (CGR), net assimilation rate (NAR), absolute growth rate (AGR), plant height, grains ear-1 , thousand grains weight, biological yield, grain yield, chlorophyll contents and shelling percentage. High N (250 kg ha-1) delayed tasseling, silking and physiological maturity and resulted in maximum growth, physiological traits and biological yields. However, 150 kg N ha-1 had resulted in maximum number of ears m-2 , number of grains ear-1 , thousand grains weight and grain yield. While 100 kg N ha-1 had resulted in early tasseling, silking and physiological maturity. Potassium fertilization at the rate of 160 kg ha-1 delayed phenology and recorded with maximum growth rates, improved physiology and maximum yield traits and grain yield. However, the treatment 120 kg K ha-1 remained almost statistically similar to the 160 kg K ha-1 for most of the parameters. In the case of control vs rest, generally the performance of the control plot was poor. Hence, 150 kg N ha-1 with 120 kg K ha-1 under optimum irrigation is recommended for optimum productivity of maize crop.

As with many invasive plant species, little is known of the population spatial patterns and stand dynamics of Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae)-a thicket-forming weed of worldwide significance in managed and conservation lands, including coastal and inland habitats of Eastern Australia. Consequently, we mapped and followed annually for 3 years the demographic fate of more than 2000 Lantana individuals at sites with four land-uses (hoop pine plantation, cattle farm, and two eucalyptus forests with occasional grazing and periodic burning regime, respectively) in Queensland, SE Australia. Populations exhibited plant size distributions that were continuous (i.e., of L or symmetric type) and unimodal, except the farm population where bimodality was observed. Newly established plants could be reproductive within one growing season at *50 cm in height, especially where environmental resources were not limiting. Density had an appreciable effect on the weed's reproductive capacity and growth, but not on survival. Established and newly recruited individuals were aggregated but the degree of aggregation decreased with plant size. However, in the sites that had experienced burning or mechanical clearing, Lantana seedling/juvenile recruitment assumed negative association (spatial displacement) in relation to established individuals. The findings of this study agree with the notion that ecological processes often leave characteristic spatial signatures, which if interpreted using appropriate hypotheses can help to ascertain factors responsible for the observed spatial patterns and stand dynamics.

Morphometric data have long suggested the existence of three species of Sicyos in Australia and New Zealand. Molecular data now corroborate this and place the three species in the context of the remaining 72 species of Sicyos, most of them in the New World. We here describe and illustrate Sicyos undara I.Telford & P.Sebastian from northern Queensland and S. mawhai I.Telford & P.Sebastian from New Zealand, and emend the circumscription of S. australis to account for the removal of these two extraneous elements. We also provide a key to the three species, map their ranges, and note their habitat and conservation status.

A field experiment was conducted during seasons (2011/2012) in semi-arid zone at North Kordofan, Sudan to evaluate local sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) genotypes for early flowering and yielding. 19 early flowered and high yielding ability genotypes were selected from the previous experiment. Randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications was used. Selection was done visually based on early flowering and bigger panicle size plants. Morphological, yield and yield component traits were estimated. Statistical analyses revealed significant differences among all the studied traits. Duncan Multiple Range Test organized and ranked the significances among the trait means. Results of the experiment disclosed that the highest amount of grain yield per area produced by the following genotypes: Tagat 4 (2.3), Tagat 7B (1.9), Tagat 10 (2.2), Tagat 14 (2.7) and Tagat 19 (1.9 ton h-1).

Past work on tree-to-tree interactions in semi-arid savannas, through the use of nearest neighbour analysis, has shown both a regular dispersion pattern and a positive correlation between the size of a tree and the distance to its nearest neighbour. From these results, the importance of competition has been inferred. In the present study, treeto-tree interactions in a mesic savanna woodland at Marondera, Zimbabwe, dominated by relatively small-sized individuals of Brachystegia spiciformis and Julbernardia globiflora, were examined. Results show that the regular dispersion pattern is uncommon; that there are few significant positive correlations between size of individual and distance to nearest neighbour; and that growth rate is not consistently correlated with size and distance of nearest neighbour. Results of a study of regeneration relative to canopy cover suggest a possible mechanism for these findings: unlike semi-arid savannas, young plants often grow in under-canopy environments so that early spacing of young trees does not occur. Significant positive correlations between the size of a tree and the distance to its nearest neighbour were found in a stand of larger, presumably older, trees, suggesting that such a relationship only develops in mesic miombo woodland through a thinning process as the trees mature. Familial clumping, which is common in the study area, may mask spatial patterns.

EUCALYPT ecologists in Australia finally have a text that is a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge on eucalypt ecology. This book incorporates and expands on ideas found in Eucalyptus, the Universal Australian by Pryor and Johnson (1981) and Pryor's (1976) The Biology of Eucalypts.

Canopy-stored seed banks are a common trait among members of several plant families in sclerophyllous woodlands of Australia and South Africa, with their fruits usually opening in response to damage or fire. Unknown is whether the degree of dormancy and of germination differs among age cohorts in seeds stored on the mother plant. We examined the extent and speed of germination from two intensely serotinous myrtaceous species, Callistemon glaucus and Calothamnus quadrifidus, for seed held in capsules for up to 9 years. Germination of both species differed significantly among age cohorts (P < 0.0001). However, no consistent increase in germination over a range of temperatures with storage was found, suggesting that no after-ripening occurred and that seeds were non-dormant at maturity. Differences among cohorts may be due to pre-conditioning. Significant (P 0.0214) differences occurred between the small-seeded Callistemon and the large-seeded Calothamnus. Germination was (1) optimum at !20 C for Callistemon but at <20 C for Calothamnus, (2) 9-12 days earlier for Callistemon than for Calothamnus, and (3) higher in light than in darkness for Callistemon but equal in both light conditions for Calothamnus. While germination of the species differed in important features, we would expect synchronous germination of all age cohorts to occur following fire and the onset of regular rainfall.

Key Words seed mass, leaf mass per area, foliage, height, leaf size, leaf lifespan, twig size I Abstract An important aim of plant ecology is to identify leading dimensions of ecological variation among species and to understand the basis for them. Dimensions that can readily be measured would be especially useful, because they might offer a path towards improved worldwide synthesis across the thousands of field experiments and ecophysiological studies that use just a few species each. Four dimensions are reviewed here. The leaf mass per area-leaf lifespan (LMA-LL) dimension expresses slow turnover of plant parts (at high LMA and long LL), long nutrient residence times, and slow response to favorable growth conditions. The seed mass-seed output (SM-SO) dimension is an important predictor of dispersal to establishment opportunities (seed output) and of establishment success in the face of hazards (seed mass). The LMA-LL and SM-SO dimensions are each underpinned by a single, comprehensible tradeoff, and their consequences are fairly well understood. The leaf size-twig size (LS-TS) spectrum has obvious consequences for the texture of canopies, but the costs and benefits of large versus small leaf and twig size are poorly understood. The height dimension has universally been seen as ecologically important and included in ecological strategy schemes. Nevertheless, height includes several tradeoffs and adaptive elements, which ideally should be treated separately. Each of these four dimensions varies at the scales of climate zones and of site types within landscapes. This variation can be interpreted as adaptation to the physical environment. Each dimension also varies widely among coexisting species. Most likely this within-site variation arises because the ecological opportunities for each species depend strongly on which other species are present, in other words, because the set of species at a site is a stable mixture of strategies. previously suggested a "leaf-height-seed" scheme, with the three dimensions readily quantifiable.

The use of hedgerows as corridors for forest vascular species has been widely studied, but only in humid oceanic and continental climates; no replicated trials have ever been performed on corridor function. Given these premises, a study was done on the eastern Po Plain, in a transition area between the Temperate (Eurosiberian) and Mediterranean climatic zones, adopting the same sample shape and dimensions as a North-American study [Corbit et al. (1999) J Ecol 87:220–232]. The following research questions were posed: (1) how common are forest species in hedgerows? (2) do origin, isolation, distance from source, width and adjacent land-use factors correlate with the frequency of forest species? (3) are hedgerows corridors for forest species? To address these, three functional types of hedgerows, identified by comparing old aerial-photos, were sampled: remnant attached (n = 12) and remnant isolated (n = 6) with respect to the nearest woodland and regenerated attached (n = 4). If wooded patches were a source for hedgerows, then regenerated hedgerows should be more similar to an adjacent woodland than an isolated remnant. A 900 m2 circular plot in woodlands and an adjacent 90-m transect along hedgerows were sampled for the presence and cover of all plant species, then 39 woodland taxa were selected. Significant differences between the three hedgerow types emerged in forest species richness, but not in cover. The forest species composition in both remnant and regenerated attached hedgerows showed a strong affinity with the adjacent stand, implying a dispersal process from woodland (source) to regenerated hedgerows (sink). A distance effect on forest species distribution clearly linked to a corridor function was found only in regenerated hedgerows, while in the remnant attached ones, even with a composition similar to that of the nearest woodland source, other additional factors cannot be ignored to explain the fine scale distribution of forest species. The cover of the most common ant-dispersed species showed a similar distance effect while vertebrate-dispersed ones did not show any significant trend with distance from woodlands. Habitat suitability for forest species was affected by width, especially in hedges wider than 12 m, but not by adjacent land use.

English broom (Cytisus scoparius) is an aggressive invasive shrub in native sclerophyll forests of South Australia. We studied its relative growth rate (RGR) and competitive ability in soils from invaded and uninvaded woodlands, in comparison to three native species it commonly displaces:Hakea rostrata, Acacia verniciflua, and A. myrtifolia. Hakea was the slowest growing species throughout the year. Both native species had their highest RGR during spring. The RGR of broom was higher than that of both hakea and acacia in the winter and spring. Despite losing its leaves in the summer, the RGR of broom through the year was higher than that of either of the native species. Soil from the invaded stands had higher organic C, N and soluble P than that from uninvaded sites. Broom and acacia grew better in the higher nutrient soil than in the lower nutrient soil. Competition did not decrease the final biomass of any of the species in low nutrient soil. In the higher nutrient soil the biomass of broom was reduced by competition with acacia, but not by competition with hakea. Competition by broom reduced the biomass of hakea but not that of acacia. Broom's earlier and higher RGR, high competitiveness in nutrient rich soils, and probably its ability to change nutrient availability could be important contributors to the mechanisms by which it invades native woodlands.

This paper compares vegetation composition, light availability, carbon and nutrient pools and Ellenberg indicator values among four old-field successional permanent plots that have received an initial treatment (ploughing, herbicide or sterilisation) prior to being left undisturbed in 1969, a second set of six plots received additional treatments (continued ploughing or mulching until 1982). On all plots species rich pioneer forests developed. Vegetation still varies among plots with different initial treatments: Sterilised plots can be distinguished from the others by dominance of Betula pendula, ploughed plots by Fraxinus excelsior, whereas herbicide-treated plots are intermediate with proportions of both species. By affecting light availability at the ground, tree species in turn influences ground vegetation and soil properties. Light availability turned out to be the dominant factor determining the composition of the vegetation in old-field succession.

Plant litter may play an important role in herbaceous plant communities by limiting primary production and influencing plant species richness. However, it is not known how the effect of litter interacts with fertilization. We tested for the role of litter and fertilization in a large-scale experiment to investigate effects on diversity and biomass of plant species, growth forms, native vs. non-native groups, and abiotic ecosystem components (e.g., soil moisture, PAR). We manipulated plant litter (removed vs. left in situ) and nutrient availability (NPK-fertilized vs. unfertilized) for 4 years in 314-m2 plots, replicated six times, in an old-field grassland. While many of our species-level results supported previously published studies and theory, our plant group results generally did not. Specifically, grass species richness and forb biomass was not affected by either fertilization or plant litter. Moreover, plant litter removal significantly increased non-native plant species richness. Relative to native plant species, all of our experimental manipulations significantly increased both the biomass and the species richness of non-native plant species. Thus, this grassland system was sensitive to management treatments through the facilitation of non-native plant species. We coupled biotic and abiotic components within a nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMS) analysis to investigate treatment effects, which revealed that specific treatments altered ecosystem development. These results suggest that fertilization and plant litter may have larger impacts on plant communities and on ecosystem properties than previously understood, underscoring the need for larger-scale and longer-term experiments.

In the 1940s extensive floating marshes (locally called 'flotant') were reported and mapped in coastal wetlands of the Mississippi River Delta Plain. These floating marshes included large areas of Panicum hemitomon-dominated freshwater marshes, and Spartina patens/Scirpus olneyi brackish marshes. Today these marshes appear to be quite different in extent and type. We describe five floating habitats and one non-floating, quaking habitat based on differences in buoyancy dynamics (timing and degree of floating), substrate characteristics, and dominant vegetation. All floating marshes have low bulk density, organic substrates. Nearly all are fresh marshes. Panicum hemitomon floating marshes presently occur within the general regions that were reported in the 1940's by O'Neil, but are reduced in extent. Some of the former Panicum hemitomon marshes have been replaced by seasonally or variably floating marshes dominated, or co-dominated by Sagittaria lancifolia or Eleocharis baldwinii. Nomenclature: Nomenclature follows RK Godfrey and JW Wooten (

A comparative study of the North American salt marshes between Magdalena Plain (Baja California, 24 ° N) and the north of San Francisco (California 38 ° N) is made in order to establish relationships between fioristic and zonal gradients. The sigmatistic-phytosociological method along with Average Linkage Clustering are used to describe the zonation of these salt marshes and to define the optimum zone of several halophilous plants and communities.

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) is used in folk medicine as an anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antidiabetic phytotherapic. This study was carried out to evaluate the antioxidant and gastroprotective activity of the hydroalcoholic extract (HEAo) and juice (JAo) of Anacardium occidentale. In vitro antioxidant activity of HEAo and JAo was evaluated through the 2,2-diphenyl-1-pricylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging method. The in vivo gastroprotective capacity was assessed in acute gastric ulcer models induced by absolute ethanol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). HEAo and JAo presented antioxidant capacity in vitro. In absolute ethanol-induced gastric lesions, HEAo (200 mg/kg) reduced the ulcerative lesion index by 76.83%, and JAo (50 and 100%) reduced the ulcerative lesion by 98.55% and 67.64%, respectively, compared to the injured control (IC) group. In the indomethacin-induced gastric lesions, the results showed that HEAo (100 and 200 mg/kg) reduced the area of the ulcerative lesion by 82.24% and 93.03%, respectively, and JAo (25, 50 and 100%) reduced it by 97.39%, 94.67% and 98.24%, respectively, compared to the injured control. In conclusion, the study found that the leaves and juice of the pseudo fruits of Anacardium occidentale have antioxidant and gastroprotective activity.

Weed incursion in cultivated
fields is a serious biological problem, which
causes considerable yield losses of
economically important field crops through
allelopathy and competitive interactions.
Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa)
and yellow melilot (Melilotus officinalis)
are among the most prevalent weeds in
cultivated fields of Pakistan, particularly in
wheat fields. Like many other weeds, they
may pose allelopathic and competitive
challenges to field crops. The objective of
this study was to evaluate allelopathic
potentials of the two weeds on germination
and seedling growth of wheat under
laboratory conditions. Amounts of 15, 20,
25 and 30% concentrated leaf aqueous
extracts of C. maculosa and M. officinalis
were prepared and tested for their effects on
germination percentage, radicle and
coleoptile lengths of wheat. Germination,
radicle and coleoptile lengths of test crop
declined significantly at higher
concentration (25-30%) of the extracts of
two weeds. However, concentration of
M. officinalis up to 20% had either no effect
or stimulatory effects on the studied growth
characteristics of wheat. Highest
germination inhibition and decreased
seedling growth were caused by leaf
extracts of C. maculosa at 30% extract
concentration. Growth inhibition was
generally dependent on the extract
concentration. The study indicated that both
plant exhibited allelopathic activity and
growth inhibitory effects on wheat at higher
concentration; however, extracts of
C. maculosa were more phytoinhibitory

We studied forest structure, composition and tree species diversity of eight plots in an environmental matrix of four altitudes (700, 1700, 2700 and 3100 m) and two types of geological substrates (ultrabasic and non-ultrabasic rocks) on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. On both substrate series, forest stature, mean leaf area and tree species diversity (both ≥ 4.8 cm and ≥ 10 cm diameter at breast height [dbh]) decreased with altitude. The two forests on the different substrate series were similar at 700 m in structure, generic and familial composition and tree species diversity, but became dissimilar with increasing altitude. The decline in stature with altitude was steeper on the ultrabasic substrates than on the non-ultrabasic substrates, and tree species diversity was generally lower on ultrabasic substrates than on non-ultrabasic substrates at ≥ 1700 m. The forests on non-ultrabasic substrates at higher altitudes and those on ultrabasic substrates at the lower altitudes were similar in dbh versus tree height allometry, mean leaf area, and generic and familial composition at ≥ 1700 m. These contrasting patterns in forest structure and composition between the two substrate series suggested that altitudinal change was compressed on the ultrabasic substrates compared to the non-ultrabasic substrates. Tree species diversity was correlated with maximum tree height and estimated aboveground biomass, but was not with basal area, among the eight study sites. We suggest that forests with higher tree species diversity are characterized by greater biomass allocation to height growth relative to trunk diameter growth under more productive environment than forests with lower tree species diversity.

Задачей нашей работы явилось создание способа, позволяющего снизить затраты, повысить эффективность и стабильность работы и улучшить качество очистки вод от взвешенных примесей в больших объемах вне зависимости от климатических факторов методом биофлокуляции с применением в качестве агента флокуляции клетки микроводоросли.

“War is socially sanctioned brutalities to achieve  political goals. War is dark valley, which pour magic of power in the minds of brutal kings and dictators. they drink this bitter taste thing and increase power  by hook or by crook, even spoil sweat and pure nature .this is very painful thing that innocent, sweat and unspeakable animals also victims of brutal war. War is cannibals who eat flesh blood of humans and animals. History, literature, religion ,media politics¬¬¬¬---------all resources that humans could invoke for their support¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬------were manipulated to forward empirical, political agenda through war in the name of civilization and culture. War was the symbol of glory in past especially in roman and Greek era.  It was also symbol of glory in Muslims,  Christians and for all nations. But painful thing is that this terrible disease find in abundance even in postmodern era .Asurdbism is human tendency to seek meaning and purpose in life and can’t to do so. War is absurd thing and, an existential crises stems from several factor, sense of being alone, awareness of freedom, realization of morality. This article explores absurdity and brutality of war through ‘Arms and man, the prince, catch 22, Absurdism’ and through history .this article also identify war in modern era and somehow its solution.