교미(동물학)

Copulation (zoology)
시리즈의 일부
섹스.
Mice X Y chromosomes.jpg
생물학적 용어
성적 생식
성관계
성적 체계

동물학에서 교미는 수컷이 암컷의 몸,[1][2] 특히 생식기관에 정자를 직접 도입하는 동물의 성행위이다.이것은 짝짓기의 한 단면입니다.물에 사는 많은 동물들은 외부 수정을 사용하는 반면, 내부 수정은 오르도비스기 후기 액체 매체에서 배우자를 유지해야 하는 필요성으로부터 발전했을 수 있다.많은 척추동물(파충류, 일부 물고기, 그리고 대부분의 새)과 함께 하는 내부 수정은 포유류가 질적으로 짝짓기를 하는 반면, 많은 기초 척추동물들은 [3][4]외부 수정으로 성적으로 번식합니다.

거미와 곤충에서

거미는 종종 곤충과 혼동되지만 곤충은 아니다; 대신에 거미류이다.[5][6]거미는 수컷과 암컷이 따로 있다.짝짓기와 교미를 하기 전에, 수컷 거미는 작은 거미줄을 치고 그 위에 사정한다.그리고 나서 그는 정자를 그의 큰 족저근의 저장고에 저장하여 정자를 암컷의 생식기로 옮긴다.암컷은 정자를 [7]무기한 저장할 수 있다.

나비의 짝짓기

원시 곤충의 경우, 수컷은 기질 위에 정자를 퇴적시키고, 때로는 특별한 구조 안에 저장된다; 구애에는 암컷이 정자 패키지를 생식기 구멍으로 가져가도록 유도하는 것이 포함되지만, 실제 [8][9]교미는 없다.잠자리처럼 거미와 유사한 번식을 하는 집단에서 수컷은 생식기 구멍에서 제거된 2차 교미 구조에 정자를 밀어내 암컷을 수정시키는 데 사용됩니다.잠자리에서는 두 번째 [10]복부에 변형된 흉골의 집합이다.곤충의 발달된 집단에서, 수컷은 정자를 암컷의 생식관에 [11]직접 저장하기 위해 복부의 끝부분에서 형성된 구조인 아에다구스를 사용합니다.

포유동물에서

성적 행동 행동 국가 보상 동기(" 원하는")과 관련된 보상 종료aka 즐거움("애호"), 그리고 포만감("억제")로[12]이런 행동 국가들 포유류에reward-based 성적 학습, 다양한 neurochemicals의 변동(즉, 도파민− 성적 욕망으로 불리던" 원하는"의 규제를 받는다;n. 분류될 수 있다.orep이네프린 - 성적 각성; 옥시토신 및 멜라노코르틴 - 성적 매력), 생식선 호르몬 주기 및 일부 [12][13]포유동물에서 성 페로몬과 운동 반사(예: 경구 행동)에 의해 더욱 영향을 받는다.이러한 행동 상태는 인간의 성적 반응 주기의 단계와 관련이 있습니다: 동기 부여 - 흥분, 소모 - 안정과 오르가즘, 포만 - 굴절.[12]성적 학습은 동물이 신체적 특징, 성격, 맥락적 단서, 그리고 다른 자극을 선천적으로 유발되는 성적 [12][13]쾌락과 연관시키기 시작할 때 일어난다.일단 형성되면, 이러한 연관성은 성적 욕구와 성적 취향 모두를 침해한다.

대부분의 암컷 포유동물에서,[14] 교미 행위는 경구운동의 성반사를 포함한 몇 가지 선천적인 신경생물학적 과정에 의해 통제된다.남성의 경우, 일부 학습이 필요하기 때문에 교미 행위는 더 복잡하지만, 선천적인 과정(질 내 음경 삽입의 역조절, 골반의 리드미컬한 움직임, 여성 페로몬의 검출)은 교미에 특유하다.이 선천적인 과정들은 이성 [15]교미를 유도한다.여성 자궁경화 행동은 호미니과에서 이차적인 것이 되었고 [16]인간에게는 기능하지 않는다.포유류는 보통 도르소 복식 자세로 교미하지만 복식 자세로 [17]교미하는 영장류 종도 있다.

대부분의 포유류는 성 페로몬을 [18]포함한 페로몬 검출에 관여하는 보메로나살 기관을 가지고 있다.인간이 이 기관을 가지고 있지 않음에도 불구하고, 성인 인간은 후각 상피에서 추정 페로몬 수용체 단백질이 [note 1][18]검출할 수 있는 특정 포유류의 페로몬에 민감한 것으로 보인다.성 페로몬은 일부 포유동물에서 성행동을 수정하는 역할을 하는 것은 분명하지만, 일반적인 페로몬 검출 능력과 인간의 성행동을 조절하는 페로몬의 관여는 아직 [12]결정되지 않았다.

교미 기간은 포유류 [22]종에 따라 크게 다르며, 체적과 상관관계가 있을 수 있으며,[23] 큰 포유동물보다 작은 포유동물에서 더 오래 지속된다.

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메모들

  1. ^ 사람과 다른 동물에서 후각 상피에서 발현되는 미량 아민 관련 수용체(TAARs)는 특정 [19][20]페로몬을 포함한 휘발성아민 냄새 물질을 검출하는 후각 수용체로서 기능한다.이러한 TAAR은 사회적 [19][20]신호의 후각 검출에 관여하는 페로몬 수용체의 한 종류로서 추정적으로 기능한다.

    비인간 동물에 관련된 연구의 리뷰는 후각 상피의 TAAR이 작용제에 [19]대한 매력적 또는 혐오적인 행동 반응을 중재할 수 있다는 것을 보여주었다.이 검토는 또한 TAAR에 의해 유발되는 행동 반응은 [19]종에 따라 다를 수 있다는 점에 주목했다.예를 들어 TAAR5는 생쥐의 트리메틸아민에 대한 흡인 및 랫드의 [19]트리메틸아민에 대한 혐오를 매개한다.사람의 경우 hTAAR5는 아마도 hTAAR5 작용제로 작용하고 [19][21]사람을 혐오하는 악취가 나는 것으로 알려진 트리메틸아민에 대한 혐오를 매개하는 것으로 추정되지만,[19][21] hTAAR5는 인간의 트리메틸아민 냄새를 담당하는 유일한 후각 수용체는 아니다.2015년 12월 현재, hTAAR5 매개 트리메틸아민 혐오는 발표된 [21]연구에서 조사되지 않았다.

레퍼런스

  1. ^ Michael Kent (2000). Advanced biology. Oxford University Press. pp. 250–253. ISBN 0199141959. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
  2. ^ "Copulation". Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers, 2007/TheFreeDictionary.com for various dictionary definitions. Retrieved September 6, 2012.
  3. ^ Cecie Starr; Christine Evers; Lisa Starr (2010). Cengage Advantage Books: Biology: A Human Emphasis. Cengage Learning. pp. 630–631. ISBN 978-1133170051. Retrieved December 9, 2010.
  4. ^ Edward J. Denecke Jr. (2006). New York State Grade 8 Intermediate Level Science Test. Barron's Educational Series. p. 105. ISBN 0764134337. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
  5. ^ Donna M. Jackson (2004). The Bug Scientists. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 13. ISBN 0618432329. Retrieved March 7, 2017.
  6. ^ Fred F. Ferri (2016). Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2017: 5 Books in 1. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 178. ISBN 978-0323448383. Retrieved March 7, 2017.
  7. ^ Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Chelicerata: Araneae". Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks/Cole. pp. 571–584. ISBN 0-03-025982-7.
  8. ^ M. Yadav (2003). Breeding in Insects. Discovery Publishing House. p. 59. ISBN 817141737X. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
  9. ^ Franz Engelmann (2013). The Physiology of Insect Reproduction: International Series of Monographs in Pure and Applied Biology: Zoology. Elsevier. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-1483186535. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
  10. ^ Janet Leonard; Alex Cordoba-Aguilar (2010). The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals. Oxford University Press. p. 334. ISBN 978-0199717033. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
  11. ^ P. J. Gullan; P. S. Cranston (2009). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 124. ISBN 978-1405144575. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
  12. ^ a b c d e Georgiadis JR, Kringelbach ML, Pfaus JG (September 2012). "Sex for fun: a synthesis of human and animal neurobiology". Nature Reviews. Urology. 9 (9): 486–98. doi:10.1038/nrurol.2012.151. PMID 22926422. S2CID 13813765. The sexual pleasure cycle adheres to the basic structure of pleasure cycles related to other rewards (such as food), and can therefore also be expressed in terms of motivation–consummation–satiety or wanting–liking–inhibition (Figure 1; Box 2).6,11,1 ... Similar to other forms of learning, sexual behaviour develops over time as people learn to associate stimuli such as bodily features, personality, and contextual cues with genitally-induced sexual pleasure.7 Adolescence is arguably the most critical phase in sexual development ... Popular belief holds that humans also respond to some distal sexual incentive stimuli (breasts, pheromones) in an unconditioned manner, but this has been difficult to evaluate empirically (Box 1) ... Sexual wanting in both rats and humans involves interaction between gonadal hormones and external stimuli that become sexual incentives through association with genitally-induced sexual reward; pleasurable genital stimulation is thus a major factor in sexual learning ...
    • Unconditioned sexual stimuli (that is, those for which the pleasurable effect requires no learning) include proximal genital tactile stimulation in humans and distal stimuli such as pheromones, odours, and certain auditory vocalizations in rats.7,16
    • Sexual inhibition involves similar brain mechanisms in rats and humans
    • Rats show a similar pattern of brain activation to humans in response to cues related to sexual reward
    • Cortical, limbic, hypothalamic, and cerebellar regions are activated by sex-related stimuli in both humans and rats
  13. ^ a b Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". Physiological Reviews. 95 (3): 853–951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. PMC 4491543. PMID 26109341. Sexual behavior follows hormonal imbalances, at least in men, but is also strongly based on pleasure. To acquire and follow these primary alimentary and mating rewards is the main reason why the brain's reward system has evolved in the first place. Note that “primary” reward does not refer to the distinction between unconditioned versus conditioned reward; indeed, most primary rewards are learned and thus conditioned (foods are primary rewards that are typically learnt). ... Pleasure is not only one of the three main reward functions but also provides a definition of reward. As homeostasis explains the functions of only a limited number of rewards, the prevailing reason why particular stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities are rewarding may be pleasure. This applies first of all to sex (who would engage in the ridiculous gymnastics of reproductive activity if it were not for the pleasure) and to the primary homeostatic rewards of food and liquid, and extends to money, taste, beauty, social encounters and nonmaterial, internally set, and intrinsic rewards. ... Desire makes behavior purposeful and directs it towards identifiable goals. Thus desire is the emotion that helps to actively direct behavior towards known rewards, whereas pleasure is the passive experience that derives from a received or anticipated reward. Desire has multiple relations to pleasure; it may be pleasant in itself (I feel a pleasant desire), and it may lead to pleasure (I desire to obtain a pleasant object). Thus pleasure and desire have distinctive characteristics but are closely intertwined. They constitute the most important positive emotions induced by rewards. They prioritize our conscious processing and thus constitute important components of behavioral control. These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward. ... Some of the stimuli and events that are pleasurable in humans may not even evoke pleasure in animals but act instead through innate mechanisms. We simply do not know. Nevertheless, the invention of pleasure and desire by evolution had the huge advantage of allowing a large number of stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities to be attractive. This mechanism importantly supports the primary reward functions in obtaining essential substances and mating partners.
  14. ^ PFAFF Donald W., SCHWARTZ-GIBLIN Susan, MacCARTHY Margareth M., KOW Lee-Ming : NOBIL Ernest, NEIL Jimmy D. : 생식 생리학, Raven Press, 1994년 2판, 1994년판
  15. ^ MEISEL Robert L., SACKS Benjamin D. : 남성 성행동의 생리.노빌 어니스트, 닐 지미 D.생식의 생리학, 레이븐 프레스, 제2판, 1994년
  16. ^ 딕슨 A.F.영장류 성: 원론자, 원숭이, 유인원, 인간에 대한 비교 연구.옥스포드 대학 출판부, 2012년 제2판
  17. ^ Dixson, Alan F. (2009-05-15). Sexual Selection and the Origins of Human Mating Systems. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-156973-9.
  18. ^ a b Nei M, Niimura Y, Nozawa M (December 2008). "The evolution of animal chemosensory receptor gene repertoires: roles of chance and necessity". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 9 (12): 951–63. doi:10.1038/nrg2480. PMID 19002141. S2CID 11135361. OR genes are predominantly expressed in sensory neurons of the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) in the nasal cavity. Mammals detect many types of chemicals in the air and some in the water as odorants, whereas fishes recognize water-soluble molecules, such as amino acids, bile acids, sex steroids and prostaglandins. Some mammalian OR genes are known to be expressed in other tissues, including the testis, tongue, brain and placenta17. However, the functional significance of such ‘ectopic expression’ of OR genes is not definitively known. TAARs are also expressed in the MOE. These receptors were first identified as brain receptors for the trace amines, a collection of amines that are present at low concentrations in the central nervous system18. TAARs were originally suspected to be involved in psychiatric disorders19 but are now known to function as a second class of olfactory receptors10. Some mouse TAARs recognize volatile amines that are present in urine, and it seems that the TAARs function to detect ligands associated with social cues10. ... Most mammals possess an additional olfactory organ called the vomeronasal organ (VnO). ... The VnO was previously thought to be a specialized organ for pheromone detection, but it is now known that the VnO and MOE share some overlapping functions22. ... However, at least one of the five V1R genes is expressed in the human olfactory mucosa72. Furthermore, a recent study suggests that these five genes can activate an OR-like signal transduction pathway in a heterologous expression system73. It is therefore possible that the products of these genes function as pheromone or olfactory receptors. Adult humans do not have a VnO but seem to be sensitive to pheromones74. Another interesting observation is that chickens have no functional or non-functional V1R and V2R genes or a VnO75, although birds use pheromones for mate choice and other behaviours76. It is possible that some OR genes in the MOE are able to detect pheromones, as in humans74,77.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g Liberles SD (October 2015). "Trace amine-associated receptors: ligands, neural circuits, and behaviors". Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 34: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2015.01.001. PMC 4508243. PMID 25616211. Roles for another receptor are supported by TAAR5-independent trimethylamine anosmias in humans [32]. ... Several TAARs detect volatile and aversive amines, but the olfactory system is capable of discarding ligand-based or function-based constraints on TAAR evolution. Particular TAARs have mutated to recognize new ligands, with almost an entire teleost clade losing the canonical amine-recognition motif. Furthermore, while some TAARs detect aversive odors, TAAR-mediated behaviors can vary across species. ... The ability of particular TAARs to mediate aversion and attraction behavior provides an exciting opportunity for mechanistic unraveling of odor valence encoding.
    그림 2: 각 TAAR의 리간드, 발현 패턴 및 종별 행동 반응 표
  20. ^ a b "Trace amine receptor: Introduction". International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Retrieved 15 February 2014. Importantly, three ligands identified activating mouse Taars are natural components of mouse urine, a major source of social cues in rodents. Mouse Taar4 recognizes β-phenylethylamine, a compound whose elevation in urine is correlated with increases in stress and stress responses in both rodents and humans. Both mouse Taar3 and Taar5 detect compounds (isoamylamine and trimethylamine, respectively) that are enriched in male versus female mouse urine. Isoamylamine in male urine is reported to act as a pheromone, accelerating puberty onset in female mice [34]. The authors suggest the Taar family has a chemosensory function that is distinct from odorant receptors with a role associated with the detection of social cues. ... The evolutionary pattern of the TAAR gene family is characterized by lineage-specific phylogenetic clustering [26,30,35]. These characteristics are very similar to those observed in the olfactory GPCRs and vomeronasal (V1R, V2R) GPCR gene families.
  21. ^ a b c Wallrabenstein I, Singer M, Panten J, Hatt H, Gisselmann G (2015). "Timberol® Inhibits TAAR5-Mediated Responses to Trimethylamine and Influences the Olfactory Threshold in Humans". PLOS ONE. 10 (12): e0144704. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1044704W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144704. PMC 4684214. PMID 26684881. While mice produce gender-specific amounts of urinary TMA levels and were attracted by TMA, this odor is repellent to rats and aversive to humans [19], indicating that there must be species-specific functions. ... Furthermore, a homozygous knockout of murine TAAR5 abolished the attraction behavior to TMA [19]. Thus, it is concluded that TAAR5 itself is sufficient to mediate a behavioral response at least in mice. ... Whether the TAAR5 activation by TMA elicits specific behavioral output like avoidance behavior in humans still needs to be examined.
  22. ^ Naguib, Marc (2020-04-19). Advances in the Study of Behavior. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-820726-0.
  23. ^ 스톨만, 로버트 R., A.H. 하코트"크기 문제: 포유류의 교미 지속 시간에 대한 (음성) 동위 측정법입니다.Linnean Society 생물저널 87.2 (2006) : 185~193.

참고 문헌