Human Behavioral Ecology

Abstract: As the world enters a new millennium, the U.S. military simultaneously enters a new era in warfare -- an era in which warfare is affected by a changing strategic environment and rapid technological change. The United States and its multinational partners are experiencing a transition from the Industrial Age to the Information Age. Simultaneously, it is fully engaged in a global war on terrorism set in a new period of globalization. These changes, as well as the experiences gained during recent and ongoing military operations, have resulted in the current drive to transform the force with network-centric warfare (NCW) as the centerpiece of this effort. This document describes how the tenets and principles of NCW are providing the foundation for developing new warfighting concepts, organizations, and processes that will allow U.S. forces to maintain a competitive advantage over potential adversaries, now and in the future. In sum, the report provides an overview of the ongoing implementation of NCW in the Department of Defense (DoD). A brief description of NCW, including its origins, its central role in force transformation, its tenets and principles, and an implementation strategy, are provided in Chapter 1. An examination of NCW as an emerging theory of war, its relationship to the four domains of Information Age warfare, the growing evidence of its benefits, and the warfighting advantages it can provide are examined in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 focuses on network-centric operations (NCO), including the relationship of NCO to the overarching Joint Operations Concepts (JOpsC), the NCO experience in Afghanistan and Iraq, the development of the NCO Conceptual Framework, and the conduct of NCO case studies. An overview of Joint and Service plans and initiatives to develop and implement network-centric capabilities and the growing investment in these capabilities by our allies and multinational partners are provided in Chapter 4

Small human body size, or the ‘pygmy’ phenotype, is characteristic of certain African, Southeast Asian and South American populations. The convergent evolution of this phenotype, and its strong association with tropical rainforests, have motivated adaptive hypotheses that stress the advantages of small size for coping with food limitation, warm, humid conditions and dense for- est undergrowth. Most recently, a life-history model has been used to suggest that the human pygmy phenotype is a consequence of early growth cessation that evolved to facilitate early reproductive onset amid conditions of high adult mortality. As we discuss here, these adaptive scenarios are not mutually exclusive and should be evaluated in consort. Findings from this area of research are expected to inform interpretations of diversity in the hominin fossil record, including the purported small-bodied species Homo floresiensis.

The Urban Center Plaza at Portland State University is a high profile place situated in downtown Portland, Oregon. In some ways it is the ideal university plaza providing space for eating, conversing, or limited recreational activity. It is a place that has been studied before, but not in a more in-depth method incorporating quantitative and qualitative analyses. It is also a place that has gone through several stages of development and is the target of many opinions based on casual observations, at times due to these changes. This thesis focuses on an ethnography of place in this particular plaza in an effort to more thoroughly analyze how people use the space and how it came together to become the plaza known by Portlanders today. This is done through the use of random video observations, direct observations, and in-depth interviews with those who were involved in the creation of the plaza. Analysis of the video recordings includes pedestrian counts, behavioral maps, and common routes taken through the plaza. Direct observations provide more insight into the day-today activities of the plaza and the phenomenological perspective of the design elements. Interviews allow for a more complete timeline of events in order to assess the plaza properly. By combining these methods based on other plaza-based ethnographies, it is concluded that the plaza is a well-used and successful space and even suggest possible areas of improvement. Methods are also assessed for future use on other city parks and plazas, possibly in a comparative context.

The Late Period (700 B.P. to Spanish contact) archaeological record of the central California coast provides opportunities to evaluate models of hunter-gatherer-fisher land use. Along the San Simeon Reef region in northern San Luis Obispo County, prevailing models of human adaptations during this interval are characterized by an abandonment of coastal habitats and littoral resources in favor of interior locations and terrestrial game and flora.  Based on an analysis of data collected during excavations at two single-component sites (CA-SLO-71 and CA-SLO-115), ethnographic information, and existing archaeological information I argue that Playano populations continued to use littoral environment through Spanish contact.
Living in rich and diverse coastal and pericoastal locations, the Playano developed distinctive means for coping with unique environmental and social circumstances. Subsistence remains and artificial evidence clearly show a trajectory of intensifying marine resources that is apparent along several lines of evidence. These includes an expansion of diet breadth, an increased dependency on marine fisheries, a shift to lower-ranking terrestrial species, and an increase in resources such as marine mammals that potentially equate to higher search and handling costs.  Intensification of local resources is also apparent in the increased use of thermal alteration, possibly indicating drying fish for storage and trade.  Late Period settlement patterns appear relatively mobile, with primary and secondary residential sites predominately situated along the coast and procurement locations in near coastal valleys. The transportation of marine shellfish at the on-set of the Late Period to Lower Nacimiento Valley Watershed sites 30 km east of San Simeon Reef provides compelling evidence of coastal access by interior groups or an interior-marine resource trade.  The drought conditions associated with the Medieval climatic anomalies, between 100 and 900 B.P. and again at 800 and 650 B.P., appear to have transformed resource availability and were a precursor to transitions in settlement patterns.

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited them to bring them up to date (2017). The copyright page has the date of the edition and new editions will be noted there as I edit old articles or add new ones. All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and manifest words and deeds  within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality.  As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes.  If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance.  As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable.

The first group of articles attempt to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of theoretical delusions. In the next three groups I comment on three of the principal delusions preventing a sustainable world— technology, religion and politics (cooperative groups). Certainly each has much of value, but as currently implemented, they are all band aids on the cancer of selfishness and stupidity, and as handmaidens of selfish genetics lead straight to Hell on Earth.

It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior.  I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior.  This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion.

The key to everything about us is biology, and it is obliviousness to it that leads millions of smart educated people like Obama, Chomsky, Clinton and the Pope to espouse suicidal utopian ideals that inexorably lead straight to Hell On Earth.  As W noted, it is what is always before our eyes that is the hardest to see.  We live in the world of conscious deliberative linguistic System 2, but it is unconscious, automatic reflexive System 1 that rules. This is the source of the universal blindness described by Searle’s The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Pinker’s Blank Slate and Tooby and Cosmides’ Standard Social Science Model.

The next section describes the digital delusions, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System one, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers).  The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it.  Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”.  In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Even for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty.  Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean.  Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor.

Other digital delusions are that we will be saved from the pure evil (selfishness) of System 1 by computers/AI/robotics/ nanotech/genetic engineering created by System 2.  The No Free Lunch principal tells us there will be serious and possibly fatal consequences.  The adventurous may regard this principle as a higher order emergent expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Hi-tech enthusiasts hugely underestimate the problems resulting from unrestrained motherhood, and of course it is neither profitable nor politically correct (and now with third world supremacism dominant, not even possible) to be honest about it.

The last section describes The One Big Happy Family Delusion , i.e., that we are selected for cooperation with everyone, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality  will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics).  Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces it. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems.

I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1.  Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection).
The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind.  In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges.  Thus every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc.  And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways.  Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. There cannot be human rights without human wrongs.  It cannot be more obvious, but one will never see the streets full of protesters with banners protesting motherhood.

America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century and now all of it due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests. This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies.  Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system.  Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”.

Explanations for the use of pots as practical domestic tools permeate the literature of technological adoption and change. While many arguments focus on the economic merits of pots, few have attempted to trace the conditions that promote or deter the adoption of pottery. This is especially true for the use of pottery by mobile peoples. We adapt an established model of technological investment to draw attention to three key variables affecting pottery adoption: manufacturing time, utility, and use time. We use the logic of this model to examine how social and environmental contexts, specifically residential mobility in marginal environments, impacts use of and investment in ceramic technology. We further illustrate how the model can be used to reveal seasonal patterns of behavior from the spatial distribution of pottery discarded by mobile foragers and herders.

Há algum tempo, inclusive na disciplina de Design, que se criou toda uma
mítica, afirmando que a proporção áurea tem grande influência na beleza
dos objetos e das formas gráficas, muitos autores dizem que designers,
artistas e arquitetos usaram-na em suas criações, além de afirmar a sua
presença na natureza. Esta pesquisa mostra diversas teses e hipóteses em
relação ao assunto, propostas por diversos autores, pondo e contrapondo
fatos. Com um breve retrospecto sobre o significado da beleza desde
os filósofos gregos até os dias atuais, passando por um dos primeiros
conceitos proposto por Euclides, sobre o que chamaríamos mais tarde de
Razão ou Proporção Áurea, seguindo para os conceitos de objetividade e
subjetividade da beleza, abordamos o tema neste artigo. O nosso objetivo
não é chegar a uma resposta definitiva, mas mostrar uma visão crítica e
imparcial sobre o assunto já que uma das coisas que nos incomodam é o
senso comum de muitos artistas e designers que acreditam piamente que
o uso desta proporção nas suas criações é a chave para a beleza das tais,
mesmo sem nenhum olhar crítico sobre o assunto, tanto para questionar
os seus pontos de vista, como para reconhecer que podem tratam-se
apenas de hipóteses.

The definitions of human behavior guiding traditional psychology, psychiatry or sociology lack the defining capacity of sciences, the provision of causal explanations of phenomena. Humanities are, by definition, anthropocentric disciplines. The mental, emotional, and social mannerisms or actions of human individuals or populations that represent behavior are manifestations of complex strategies responding to stimuli in perceived realities. In this they apply neurologically constituted means such as consciousness, theory of mind, and self-awareness, while also following culturally imposed conventions of various types. None of these and other factors contributing to human behavior can be dissociated from their historical trajectories, leading all the way into the deep hominin past. Nor can they be explained effectively without an understanding of these trajectories. Such understanding has largely escaped scientific attention thus far, and this chapter cannot provide more than a rudimentary introduction illustrating the profound shortcomings of traditional disciplines in defining the complexities of human behavior.

The unconscious mind tends to disregard negations in its processing of semantic meaning. Therefore, messages containing negated concepts can ironically prime mental representations and evaluations that are opposite to those intended. We hypothesized that the subtle presentation of a negated concept (e.g., “no smoking”) would activate ironic motivational orientations as well. We tested this hypothesis in a public health context. Smokers viewed photographs in which no-smoking signs were either inconspicuously embedded (prime) or edited out (control). Primed smokers showed amplified automatic approach tendencies toward smoking-related stimuli, but not toward smoking-unrelated stimuli. Since passive priming effects generally serve to facilitate forms of action, not inhibit them, anti-smoking and other public health campaigns may ironically increase the very behaviors they seek to reduce.

This thesis investigates the driving force behind the change in focus from pine to hardwood species in logging operations of the upper Great Lakes of the early 20th century. Information from historical records and modern research is used to create a lumber extraction model based on principles of optimization theory and human behavioral ecology. This model is used to generate a hypothesis to be compared against historic lumber production data and tested against the archaeological record of the Ottawa National Forest. As a result, this thesis identifies depleting pine resources as the driving force behind the change from pine to hardwood harvests seen in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula in the early 20th century.

Variation in fertility patterns in relation to environmental factors and mortality schedules over the life course can be understood using evolutionary life history theory. In addition to explaining differences within and between human populations, LHT allows us to make direct comparisons with other species. Here we discuss LHT, the concept of trade-offs, and the importance of this theory as applied to humans. We end by discussing the ways in which LHT potentially explains patterns of low fertility in contemporary industrialized society.

Our environment and economy are at a crossroads. This paper attempts a cohesive narrative on how human evolved behavior, money, energy, economy and the environment fit together. Humans strive for the same emotional state of our successful ancestors. In a resource rich environment, we coordinate in groups, corporations and nations, to maximize financial surplus, tethered to energy, tethered to carbon. At global scales, the emergent result of this combination is a mindless, energy hungry, CO2 emitting Superorganism. Under this dynamic we are now behaviorally 'growth constrained' and will use any means possible to avoid facing this reality. The farther we kick the can, the larger the disconnect between our financial and physical reality becomes. The moment of this recalibration will be a watershed time for our culture, but could also be the birth of a new 'systems economics'. and resultant different ways of living. The next 30 years are the time to apply all we've learned during the past 30 years. We've arrived at a species level conversation. "The real problem of humanity is the following: we have paleolithic emotions; medieval institutions; and god-like technology."-E.O. Wilson "We live in a world where there is more and more information, and less and less meaning."-Jean Baudrillard "Not everything that is faced can be changed, but nothing can be changed until it is faced."-James Baldwin 1. Overview Despite decades of warnings, agreements, and activism, human energy consumption, emissions, and atmospheric CO2 concentrations all hit new records in 2018 (Quéré et al., 2018). If the global economy continues to grow at about 3.0% per year, we will consume as much energy and materials in the next ∼30 years as we did cumulatively in the past 10,000. Is such a scenario inevitable? Is such a scenario pos-sible? Simultaneously, we get daily reminders the global economy isn't working as it used to (Stokes, 2017) such as rising wealth and income inequality, heavy reliance on debt and government guarantees, populist political movements, increasing apathy, tension and violence, and ecological decay. To avoid facing the consequences of our biophysical reality, we're now obtaining growth in increasingly unsustainable ways. The developed world is using finance to enable the extraction of things we couldn't otherwise afford to extract to produce things we otherwise couldn't afford to consume. With this backdrop, what sort of future economic systems are now feasible? What choreography would allow them to come about? In the fullness of the Anthropocene, what does a hard look at the relationships between ecosystems and economic systems in the broadest sense suggest about our collective future? Ecological economics was ahead of its time in recognizing the fundamental importance of nature's services and the biophysical underpinnings of human economies. Can it now assemble a blueprint for a 'reconstruction' to guide a way forward? Before articulating prescriptions, we first need a comprehensive diagnosis of the patient. In 2019, we are beyond a piecemeal listing of what's wrong. A coherent description of the global economy requires a systems view: describing the parts, the processes, how the parts and processes interact, and what these interactions imply about future possibilities. This paper provides a brief overview of the relationships between human behavior, the economy and Earth's environment. It articulates how a social species self-organizing around surplus has metabolically morphed into a single, mindless, energy-hungry "Superorganism." Lastly, it provides an assessment of our constraints and opportunities, and suggests how a more sapient economic system might develop.

The project deals with the study on what type of shopping do consumers prefer, is it online shopping or traditional shopping and why? What type of products do they prefer buying online or through traditional means and why? How satisfied are they by the shopping experience. Few suggestions like extended customization options and gaming options are also provided that could help in improving online sales.

In the beginning of this century, humanity is at a crossroads where the Boulding’s spaceship “Earth” has begun to become really unstable. On the one hand, it continues with processes and ways of life based on a consumption that does not see the limits of the planet and that affects it both from a social and an environmental point of view. In addition, certain parts of the population, at the moment very reduced, are starting to be more conscious of the problems of existence and with small steps balance the drift of the spaceship “Earth”. From a perspective in which the “Sustainability” is a question of values and consciousness, will be built a normative individual model based on this paradigm. Three elements will be utilized for it: Spiral dynamics, Wilber’s AQAL system (1996) and some theories of human needs. The systemic and complex dimensions of this model will constitute the extrapolated foundations for a normative model in companies and their Corporate Social Responsibility. Finally, the process that happens in a paradigm shift or change of values will be presented, as well as present examples and initiatives that function in the road to Sustainability.

Approximately forty contemporary hunter-gatherer societies survive in the increasingly deforested region of South East Asia. Despite the important place of hunter-gatherers in anthropological theory-making, detailed ethnographic information about contemporary South East Asian foraging societies can be difficult to locate. This article reviews key issues surrounding the cultural identity of South East Asian hunter-gatherers, including ethnolinguistic group identities and Eurocentric ideas of ‘pure’ foragers. The recent debates over whether ‘pure’ foragers were able to live in tropical forests is reviewed, finding that the debate’s aftermath provoked scholars to further explore the nature of prehistoric environments and to appreciate of the diversity of forager cultural adaptations to different ecological conditions. One outcome of the debates has been a shift towards exploring contemporary hunter-gatherers as ‘bricoleurs’ who flexibly shift their economic practices to accommodate changing, resource-depleted environments.

The authors of this edition propose a novel and inspiring research approach to the subject of plants, which – being a form of life that is different, yet akin to us – is a constant source of nourishment and metaphors, decoration and obsessions. The articles included in this thematic block on plants enter into lively ongoing debates on genetics, feminism, ecology and plant ontology. They are excellent examples of the fact that in Polish philosophical and cultural reflection there was an understanding very early on of the challenges that posthumanism poses to our anthropocentric intellectual habits. Foreign readers will recognize in these Polish reflections a bold willingness to ask ethical and aesthetic questions of great relevance to the modern world that go far beyond the safe, though most likely imagined, limits of what it is to be human.

Social scientists and folk views have long had it that there is an association between religiosity and prosocial behaviour, but hard evidence for such a relationship is limited. Studies show that religiosity is correlated with self-reported prosociality, however this relationship is not very clear when it comes to observed prosocial behaviours. Experimental studies reveal a link between religious priming and prosocial behaviours, and remarkably such effects hold irrespectively of degrees of religiosity. Building on and combining the strengths of previous field designs, I report here the results of a field experiment in Mauritius examining the effects of religious environments on cooperation in a naturalistic setting. These results were consistent with previous findings that religious cues may increase cooperation. Importantly, this effect was not dependent on degrees of prior religiosity. Plausible interpretations of such effects are discussed.

Despite decades of effort, around 2.8 billion people still rely on solid fuels to meet domestic energy needs. There is robust evidence this causes premature death, chronic disease as well as wider economic, social and environmental problems. Behavior change interventions are effective to reduce exposure to harm such as HAP, including those using health communications approaches. This article reports the findings of a project that reviewed the effectiveness of behavior change approaches in cleaner cooking interventions in resource-poor settings. The authors synthesized evidence of the use of behavior change techniques (BCTs), along the cleaner cooking value chain, to bring positive health, economic and environmental impacts. 48 articles met the inclusion criteria, which documented 55 interventions carried out in 20 countries. The groupings of BCT most frequently used were “Shaping Knowledge” (n = 47), “Rewards and Threats” (n = 35), “Social Support” (n = 35) and “Comparisons” (n = 16). A scorecard of behavior change effectiveness was developed to analyze a selection of case study interventions. BCTs have been used effectively as part of multilevel programs. Cooking demonstrations, the right product, and understanding of the barriers and benefits along the value chain have all played a role. Often absent are theories and models of behavior change adapted to the target audience and local context. Robust research methods are needed to track and evaluate behavior change and impact, not just technology disseminated. Behavior change approaches could then play a more prominent role as the “special sauce” in cleaner cooking interventions in resource poor settings.

In this article we do two things: in the first half, we trace the emergence and development of ecological linguistics, or ecolinguistics, from the early 1970s. Having contrasted the ecological endeavour with the form-based traditions of 20th century linguistics, we discern four particular ways in which the ecology of language has been conceptualised: as a symbolic ecology (Section 2), a natural ecology (Section 3), a sociocultural ecology (Section 4), and a cognitive ecology (Section 5). These four approaches are described and discussed in detail. In the second half of the state of the art, we outline future horizons for the discipline. The foundation for this outline is our plea for a unified ecological language science (Section 6). This unified program pursues a naturalised agenda in the language sciences by exploring the ecological embeddedness of language and linguistic interaction (Section 7). In particular, this section presents the extended ecology hypothesis as one possible way of understanding ecolinguistics as a naturalised science of language. Having presented this view, we argue that it can place the four different traditions mentioned within a unified ecolinguistic framework (Section 8). This framework includes a naturalised foundation for those concerns that characterise the ecolinguistic enterprise, e.g. the exploitation of natural resources, empowerment of marginalized social groups, and the peaceful coexistence of languages and cultures in multicultural communities. In the conclusion (Section 9), we call for further interaction between ecological schools and traditions.

I am still on the first stretch of this nomadic exploration, but I think I can begin to answer the question that is guiding this exploration—'how can the Natural-Indigenous Worldview support our understandings of the potential for an anarchist society (i.e. for social order without hierarchical domination)?' The key of Natural-Indigenous Worldview that opens the lock of an anarchist society, of a society without hierarchical domination, comes in the Natural-Indigenous Worldview's spiritual ecology. When we develop the four R's (responsibility, reciprocity, respect, relationships [Young 2015]) through relating to the world in a manner that is facilitated by the spiritual ecology that rises from the Natural-Indigenous Worldview and thus ascribes spirit to all things without regard for the Colonial Modernist Worldview's distinction between 'animate' and 'inanimate', we come to see the world as a single, living, conscious being. The illusion of a discrete distinction between self and other breaks down and we come to see the self (and other selves) as strands in the unified, conscious web of creation. We come to care for all of creation as we would care for our children, for our partners, for our parents and for our self. Transcending the illusion of discrete individuality we develop a lovingly reciprocal, responsible, respectful and relational orientation to the world that begets virtuous thought, feeling, behavior and being without recourse to hierarchical authority (to punishment and fear of punishment). Engaging with the world through the spiritual ecology that rises from the Natural-Indigenous Worldview allows the sprouts of human nature to grow to fruition without recourse to hierarchical domination (i.e. without recourse to attempts to 'help sprouts grow' by pulling on them and the death of the sprouts of human nature portended by such hierarchical folly [Meng Zi 2016, 2A2]).

This article looks at the evolution of sex differences in sexuality in human beings, and asks whether evolutionary psychology sometimes exaggerates these differences. According to a common understanding of sexual selection theory, females in most species invest more than males in their offspring and, as a result, males compete for as many mates as possible, whereas females choose from among the competing males. The males-compete/females-choose (MCFC) model applies to many species, but is misleading when applied to human beings. This is because males in our species commonly contribute to the rearing of the young, which reduces the sex difference in parental investment. Consequently, sex differences in our species are relatively modest. Rather than males competing and female choosing, humans have a system of mutual courtship: Both sexes are choosy about long-term mates and both sexes compete for desirable mates. We call this the mutual mate choice (MMC) model. Although much of the evolutionary psychology literature is consistent with the MMC model, the traditional MCFC model exerts a strong influence on the field, distorting the emerging picture of the evolved sexual psychology of Homo sapiens. Specifically, it has led to the exaggeration of the magnitude of human sex differences, an overemphasis on men’s short-term mating inclinations, and a relative neglect of male mate choice and female mate competition. We advocate a stronger focus on the MMC model.

It is widely known that traditional northern hunter–gatherers such as the Inuit included putrid meat, fish, and fat in their diet, although the ubiquity and dietary importance of decomposing animal foods seem often to have been underappreciated. There is no evidence that these arctic and subarctic foragers suffered from major outbreaks of botulism (Clostridium botulinum), or from the toxic metabolites of other pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes or Salmonella spp., until the 1970s and 1980s when Euroamericans introduced more "sanitary" methods for putrefying native foods. While many ethnologists, nutritionists, and public health officials working in these high-latitude regions are generally aware of the importance of putrefied foods among such peoples, most scholars, regardless of discipline, would not expect similar practices to have been commonplace in the tropics, especially in hot, humid environments like the lowland rainforests of the Congo Basin. And yet a "deep dive" into the ethnohistoric literature of sub-Saharan Africa, and elsewhere in the tropics and sub-tropics of the Old and New World, shows that both hunter–gatherers and traditional small-scale rural farmers commonly ate thoroughly putrefied meat, fish, and fat with relative impunity, consuming some of it raw, frequently cooking it, but often barely so. Not only did tropical peoples regularly eat putrefied animal foods, these ethnohistoric accounts make it clear that, at least in many regions, the Indigenous populations generally preferred it that way. Equally surprising, perhaps, is the fact that this preference for putrid meat remained widespread in equatorial Africa and in many other tropical and sub-tropical regions well into the first quarter of the 20th century, only fading from view around the time of WWI or thereabouts. Combining the insights gained by looking at the consumption of putrid meat in both northern and tropical environments, several interesting implications become evident. First, it is clear that the disgust response with regard to the taste, smell, and sight of rotten meat and maggots is not a hardwired human universal, but more likely a learned cultural response, one that is closely linked to European colonization, Westernization, urbanization, and industrialization. Second, the capacity for both northern and tropical peoples to consume putrid meat with impunity suggests that their ability to resist the toxic effects of the metabolites of C. botulinum and other pathogens most likely stems in large part from the environmental priming of their gut floras and immune systems through early childhood exposure to pathogens rather than from genetic factors. This conclusion fits well with findings from recent microbiome studies, including studies of the gut floras of monozygotic twins living in different households. Third, putrefaction provides many of the same benefits that one gets by cooking, because it effectively "pre-digests" meat and fat prior to ingesting them. Moreover, in tropical environments putrefaction occurs very rapidly and automatically, and requires little investment of time and energy on the part of the consumer. Finally, we suggest that, by eating putrid meat and fat, early hominins could have acquired many of the benefits of cooking, but at much lower cost, and quite likely long before they gained control of fire.

Social media is a fascinating new human phenomena. In this
paper I have discussed about youths who are using social media which can be any kind of like social networking site like Facebook,Twitter and also social media application like whatsapp,viber etc.I have tried to prove the fact that we the youth people are being maintained by these social media.I have been motivated to work with this topic because youths now-a-days always discuss about social media status not the real world in every sphere of their life.I have shown some statistical data and by these I have figured out the solution that how social media control our mind.

Traditional models of human behavior began with an exploration of subjective experiences, manifest personality characteristics and eventually pathological classification along a continuum of dysfunction and disorder . Early models tackling the robustness of human behavior, such as Piaget's cognitive perspective, failed to consider the context in which a behavior developed, even while accounting for the roles of both nature and nurture . Erikson's stages of development did integrate social and cultural factors, but he still did not

Despite numerous tweaks, revisions, and extensions, Paleolithic archaeologists continue to rely heavily on many ethnographically-derived concepts put forward decades ago by Lewis Binford. Prominent among these are ideas about logistical vs. residential mobility, expedient vs. curated technologies, embedded vs. direct toolstone procurement, zooarchaeological utility indices, and many others. Binford often presented these ideas in the form of "law-like" generalizations that the archaeological profession has subsequently come to accept and apply with far too little concern for their validity, even in the ethnographic contexts that originally gave rise to them. Some of these classic "Binfordisms" (e.g., logistical and residential mobility) not only don't stand up well when explored more deeply in the ethnohistoric record, but they focus on the movement of food, people, and materials across landscapes yet totally ignore the fundamental issue of transport. Others (e.g., embedded toolstone procurement) are inherently illogical when assumed to be the universal norm, they are largely unsupported by the ethnohistoric and ethnographic record, and they are surprisingly unanthropological in conception, despite Binford's clarion calls for an explicitly "anthropological archaeology." Still others (e.g., zooarchaeological utility indices) suffer from Binford's (inadvertent) imposition of the decidedly Western culinary preference for muscle tissue (i.e., "steaks") in developing his utility rankings of different ungulate body parts. To many traditional northern peoples, these meaty cuts were looked upon as "dog food" or "white man's food" because they contained little or no fat. These and other "Binfordisms" need to be carefully and thoroughly reexamined in the ethnographic and ethnohistoric realm and their theoretical shortcomings identified; they then need to be rebuilt from the ground up. Unfortunately, most contemporary Paleolithic archaeologists seem to have swallowed them hook, line, and sinker, and devote the lion's share of their effort, not to questioning and reexamining the original concepts, but instead to looking for new and ever more sophisticated methods for "seeing" them in the archaeological record. Without much more attention to the validity of these "Binfordisms," and to the real-world variability they subsume and largely ignore, many of the currently fashionable attempts to force the archaeological record into the typological "pigeonholes" fostered by Binford's "law-like" generalizations are likely to produce a library's worth of dubious fairytales.

Definitions of ‘holism’ in applied language studies need to remain broad enough to allow for true epistemological diversity and reject prematurely coherent impermeable systems that do not reflect the present state of knowledge in our field. In Part 1 of this two-part paper, I focus on definitional issues arguing that the atomistic parts of any whole are related within a complex, but fluid, organic system and are more easily understood in relationship to other parts of that system. After considering the relationship between holistic and atomistic phenomena, I argue that ecological studies (Van Lier, 2002), while providing groundbreaking new insights into the holistic nature of applied language study, appear to exclude context-independence as a legitimate perspective. My definition above is therefore closely associated with Pappamihiel and Walser’s (2009) characterization of complexity theory. Epistemological diversity and complexity lead us to accept dynamism, unpredictability and instability as natural conditions of our field which cannot be ignored.

We have identified a sample of 53 societies outside of the classical Himalayan and Marquesean area that permit polyandrous unions. Our goal is to broadly describe the demographic, social, marital, and economic characteristics of these societies and to evaluate some hypotheses of the causes of polyandry. We demonstrate that although polyandry is rare it is not as rare as commonly believed, is found worldwide, and is most common in egalitarian societies. We also argue that polyandry likely existed during early human history and should be examined from an evolutionary perspective. Our analysis reveals that it may be a predictable response to a high operational sex ratio favoring males and may also be a response to high rates of male mortality and, possibly, male absenteeism. Other factors may contribute, but our within-polyandry sample limits analysis.

Ekologia w krótkim czasie zyskała rzesze zwolenników na całym świecie, stała się nie tylko nieodłącznym składnikiem intelektualnego krajobrazu i elementem codziennej praktyki, ale również doskonałym produktem marketingowym. Jednak podejrzliwi myśliciele postanowili nie szczędzić słów krytyki kierowanych pod jej adresem, jednocześnie próbując nadać teoretyczny kształt zjawisku przybierającemu charakter masowy.

At the cusp of food production, Near Eastern societies adopted new territorial practices, including archaeologically visible sedentism and nonsedentary social defenses more challenging to identify archaeologically. New archaeological and paleoenvironmental evidence for Arabia's earliest-known sacrifices points to territorial maintenance in arid highland southern Yemen. Here sedentism was not an option prior to agriculture. Seasonally mobile pastoralists developed alternate practices to reify cohesive identities, maintain alliances, and defend territories. Archaeological and paleoenvironmental evidence implies cattle sacrifices were commemorated with a ring of more than 42 cattle skulls and a stone platform buried by 6,400-year-old floodplain sediments. Associated with numerous hearths, these cattle rites suggest feasting by a large gathering, with important sociopolitical ramifications for territories. A GIS analysis of the early Holocene landscape indicates constrained pasturage supporting small resident human populations. Cattle sacrifice in southern Arabia suggests a model of mid-Holocene Neolithic territorial pastoralism under environmental and cultural conditions that made sedentism unsustainable. [prehistory, Arabia, sacrifice, territoriality, Neolithic]