Geohazards

In the United Kingdom Permian and Triassic halite (rock salt) deposits have been affected by natural and artificial dissolution producing karstic landforms and subsidence. Brine springs from the Triassic salt have been exploited since Roman times, or possibly earlier, indicating prolonged natural dissolution. Medieval salt extraction in England is indicated by the of place names ending in “wich” indicating brine spring exploitation at Northwich, Middlewich, Nantwich and Droitwich. Later, Victorian brine extraction in these areas accentuated salt karst development causing severe subsidence problems that remain a legacy. The salt was also mined, but the mines flooded and consequent brine extraction caused the workings to collapse, resulting in catastrophic surface subsidence. Legislation was enacted to pay for the damage and a levy is still charged for salt extraction. Some salt mines are still collapsing and the re-establishment of the post-brine extraction hydrogeological regimes means that salt springs may again flow causing further dissolution and potential collapse.

Besides precipitation triggered landslides, a major thread from landslides is related to earthquake triggered landslides, which account for the majority of catastrophic landslides. This fact is complicated due to the progressive development of urban areas and infrastructure, the dependency of our society on a functioning infrastructure and an increasing number of endangered objects in the affected areas. Therefore there is a need to improve basic understanding of the technical, financial and social risks posed by earthquakes triggered landslides. Furthermore basic understanding of processes and cascading hazards related to earthquake triggered landslides must be improved. For the past two decades an increasing number of landslide warning systems are developed and applied for general public and industrial purposes. On the other side earthquake triggered landslide warning and monitoring has made very little advances and is still under development. Resent research in the area of sensor network development focus on the application of micro sensors (MEMS) in ad hoc wireless sensor networks operated in an interoperable spatial data infrastructure (SDI) according to the sensor web enablement (SWE) guidelines of the OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) for real-time monitoring of landslides like the SLEWS – Sensor based Landslide Early Warning System. The SLEWS sensor nodes provide next to motion detection also a 3D acceleration data to evaluate direction and value of the peak acceleration. This information can be used in an event case both to monitor endangered slopes or critical infrastructures and to initiate warnings to trigger e.g. rail or road blocks. Furthermore the data from the sensor network can be provided in real-time for shake or alert maps via standardized interfaces.

Early warning systems are becoming one of the main pillars of disaster prevention in natural hazards
especially where mitigation strategies are not realizable. Therefore, the call for multi-hazard early warning systems and improvement of monitoring of natural hazards is steadily growing. However, data gathering (generation) through sensor integration as well as system independent supply of information from early warning networks are of particular challenge. Because very complex information and warning chains have to be served for, standardization and interoperability plays an important role for all organizations and infrastructures being involved. The SLEWS project investigates the complete information chain, starting from data gathering using wireless sensor networks via information processing and analysis to information retrieval. This is demonstrated for landslides and mass movements. The proposed approach adds especially to the funding target of mobile, cost-reduced and easy deployable measurement systems, as well as the modern information systems under consideration of interoperability and service orientated architecture concepts. The proposed wireless network provides the basis for applying further techniques like sensor fusion, identification of malfunctions or errors. The obtained geodata is processed according to the requirements of particular users and can be provided for use in a local or regional as well as global information structure. Interfaces will be created, which make a mobile and flexible adaptation or integration of geodata possible. Thus, it is ensured that the early warning system reaches the spectrum of potential users and provides a maximum flexibility.

Flash floods occur almost exclusively in small basins, and they are common in small Mediterranean catchments. They pose one of the most common natural disasters, as well as one of the most devastating. Such was the case of the recent flood in Euboea island, in Greece, in August 2020. A field survey was accomplished after the 2020 flash floods in order to record the main impacts of the event and identify the geomorphological and man-made causes. The flash flood susceptibility in the urbanized alluvial fans was further assessed using a Geographic Information System (GIS)-based approach. Our findings suggest that a large portion of the alluvial fans of Politika, Poros and Mantania streams are mainly characterized by high and very high hazard. In fact, ~27% of the alluvial fans of Politika and Poros streams are characterized with very high susceptibility, and ~54% of Psachna area. GIS results have been confirmed by field observations after the 2020 flash flood, with significant damages ...

Society and economy are only two of the dimensions of vulnerability. This paper aims to elucidate the state of the art of data sources, spatial variables, indicators, methods , indexes and tools for the spatial assessment of socioeconomic vulnerability (SEV) related to geohazards. This review was first conducted in December 2018 and rerun in March 2020 for the period between 2010 and 2020. The gross number of articles reviewed was 27, from which we identified 18 relevant references using a revised search query and six relevant references identified using the initial query, giving a total sample of 24 references. The most common source of data remains population censuses. The most recurrent spatial variable used for the assessment of SEV is households without basic services, while critical facilities are the most frequent spatial category. Traditional methods have been combined with more innovative and complex methods to select and weight spatial indicators and develop indices. The Social Vulnerability Index (SoVI ®) remains the benchmark for the assessment of SEV and a reference for its spatial assessment. Geographic information systems (GIS) is the most common tool for conducting a spatial assessment of SEV regarding geohazards. For future spatial assessments of SEV regarding geohazards, we recommend considering 3-D spatial indexes at the microscale at the urban level and involving the community in the assessments.

The geoindicator concept has been applied in this study for the assessment of geohazard vulnerability. A vulnerability conceptual framework has been used to integrate geoindicators and to explain the relationshisp between
geohazards and the human-environment system. The geohazard geoindicators in the conceptual framework are found to be useful to identify exposure to risk of geohazards, system's vulnerability and geohazard risk assessment. The response system and coping mechanisms have also been identified to reduce impact and assess vulnerability. The integration of geoindicators into the conceptual framework is able to provide early warning for geohazard occurrences to communities in vulnerable areas.

Extreme Geohazards: Reducing the Disaster Risk and Increasing Resilience
Hans-Peter Plag, Sean Brocklebank, Deborah Brosnan, Paola Campus, Sierd Cloetingh, Shelley Jules-Plag, and Seth Stein

Extreme geohazards have the potential to generate global disasters.
• Recent large earthquakes have illustrated the extent of the destruction that extreme geohazards can inflict on a modern society, particularly through cascading effects and chains of failure.
• Disaster risk reduction (DRR) focuses on the risk associated with relatively frequent hazards with major impacts, while the risk associated with low-probability, high-impact events is not sufficiently considered.
• Threats from low-frequency, high-impact events are grossly underestimated in DRR.
• This is particularly true for volcanic eruptions. So far, modern civilisation has not been exposed to an eruption comparable to the most extreme events that occurred during the Holocene.
• Under today’s circumstances, these events are associated with extreme disaster risks, comparable to other possible mega-disasters from extreme droughts, floods, pandemics and asteroid impacts.
• A global volcano-monitoring system is required as a basis for an early warning system to provide timely warnings to mitigate impacts on transportation and food security.
• A cost–benefit analysis shows that on a global  basis several billion dollars per year should be invested to significantly reduce the risk associated  with extreme volcanic eruptions.
• Efficient DRR will also require a reduction in the vulnerability of infrastructure, an increase of general economic and social resilience, and the development of capabilities to adapt to potentially large long-term changes in environmental conditions.
• A paradigm shift toward integrated DRR and Resilience (D3R) programmes could more  aggressively facilitate the public trust, cooperation, and communication needed to adequately prepare for and recover from expected disasters  as well as ‘ Black Swan’ disasters (low-probability, high-consequence events that are difficult to predict or prevent).
• In D3R, science does not have the primary goal  of reducing uncertainties and prediction errors for hazards, but rather to develop antifragile processes and strengthen resilience through increased social capital.
• An international process is needed to assess repeatedly the global risk associated with extreme hazards, including geohazards, and our preparedness to cope with these high-impact events.
• This process could be an amalgam of the process used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the Quaternary Defense Review carried out by the Department of Defense of the USA, and the Global Risk assessment carried out by the World Economic Forum.
• A model-based global simulation of one or more extreme volcanic eruptions that took place during the Holocene would provide a basis for a realistic assessment of the risk and the identification of potential cascading effects and chains of failure.
• The International Charter on Space and Major Disasters should be extended to cover cases of emerging threats for early warning purposes prior to the occurrence of a disaster.

That talk is never disinterested complicates the relationship between the environment and the claims people make about it. Talk about place, and one's self in it, is particularly complex when the environment poses risk or is otherwise problematized. This study, a secondary analysis of interview data, seeks to extend discursive work on place-identity by examining the ways in which 14 residents of a small English village talk about themselves and their locale. The locale accommodates an active quarry, and many residents had lodged complaints to the quarry about dust, noise and vibrations from blasting. Attention to the interactional context of the interviews illustrates the ways in which (simply) interviewing people about their locale can threaten self- and place-identity. When asked about life in the village, interviewees oriented to two main dilemmas in protecting self- and place-identity: (1) how to justify continued residence in a challenging environment and (2) how to complain about the locale whilst maintaining positive place-identity. Discursive responses to these dilemmas drew upon typical identity processes, such as self- and place distinctiveness and the formulation of out-groups, as well as upon constructions of localized power-sharing and morally obligated tolerance of risk. We suggest that research on problematical places, and of environmental risk, needs to be sensitized to how it may constitute a threat to self- and place-identity, and how this may mediate formulations self and place, as well as of environmental risk.

This report aims to summarize Ireland’s most pressing issue, global warming as an anthropogenic geohazard. The causes of greenhouse gas emissions in Ireland are identified as well as quantified and compared to the members of the European Union and the wider community. Attempts are made to recognize changes which are already occurring. The effects of climate change on the Irish environment as well as on sectors of society in the future are explored. Adaptation to and mitigation against climate change are discussed in terms of national and international objectives. It is found that Ireland is ill prepared for future changes in terms of adequate research, funding or adaptation but could easily be at the forefront of change in terms of renewable energies and carbon neutral economy.

Modern, so called Ad-Hoc wireless sensor networks (WSN) arec haracterized by as elf organization and self-healing capacity of the system (autonomous systems), without predefined infrastructures . It permits an on hierarchic data exchange and thus allows av ery simple adaption of the network to changing conditions. The use of a SLEWS -Aprototype system for flexible real time monitoring of landslides using an open spatial data infrastructure and wireless sensor networks

Hydrocarbon transmission pipeline projects are major infrastructure developments that involve
numerous technical, environmental, political and social challenges. Pipeline route selection is
multidisciplinary task where the construction cost, environmental impact, community interface, and
technical design criteria are evaluated simultaneously. If mistakes are made at the stage of route
selection, remedy is often costly, complicated, and time consuming. Geohazards are one of the key
contributors to the construction cost and to the operability of a pipeline. The diversity of terrain
conditions and particular design requirements of each pipeline project has resulted in lack of a
standardized/formulated Geohazard risk assessment method for the oil and gas pipelines. Country of
Kenya is home to many types of Geohazards and recent hydrocarbon exploration and developments
makes it a good candidate for a Geohazard assessment study. This project introduces a practical pipeline
Geohazard modelling and quantification method that can be performed by use of publicly available
information and data sources, and probably can be used as a basis for other similar pipeline projects.
Terrain Analysis and geo-statistical analysis of past events were performed on a GIS platform to look at
each of the four major geohazards: Volcano, Earthquake, Flood, and Landslide. A combined Pipeline
Geohazard map was produced for the whole country and then a route options evaluation matrix was
designed to quantitatively assess and compare the three proposed pipeline routes.

Over the past 10 years inspections (site visits, boat based surveys or diver surveys) have been completed at nearly 20,000 pipeline watercourse crossings for 20 different pipeline owners. During the last 10 years there have been 721 unique locations where an exposed pipeline was found and at 213 of these locations a freespan was encountered. Only one of the freespans resulted in the failure (loss of product) of the pipeline. This record illustrates what is now become widely accepted, that pipeline exposure does not necessarily lead to pipeline failure. The record adds to this, pipeline freespan does not necessarily lead to failure. This highlights that the relevant question for "water loading caused pipeline failure" is: Does the combination of freespan length and water velocity exceed a combination that would lead to vortex induced vibration or the exceedance of the static load limit of the pipe?

The paper focuses on the identification of potential geoindicators for the assessment of landslides in the District of Hulu Langat. Physical parameters related to landslide  occurrences are identified and discussed within the
context of their suitability as geoindicators. The parameters are lithology, slope gradient, drainage density, land cover and lineament density. Each parameter is divided into several classes where the number and frequency of landslides in
each class was determined. Preliminary results indicate that both the number and frequency of landslides are useful geoindicators for parameters such as lithology, slope gradient, drainage density and land cover while lineament density has not yielded useful landslide geoindicators.

Besides precipitation triggered landslides, a major thread from landslides is related to earthquake triggered landslides, which account for the majority of catastrophic landslides. This fact is complicated due to the progressive development of urban areas and infrastructure, the dependency of our society on a functioning infrastructure and an increasing number of endangered objects in the affected areas. Therefore there is a need to improve basic understanding of the technical, financial and social risks posed by earthquakes triggered landslides. Furthermore basic understanding of processes and cascading hazards related to earthquake triggered landslides must be improved. For the past two decades an increasing number of landslide warning systems are developed and applied for general public and industrial purposes. On the other side earthquake triggered landslide warning and monitoring has made very little advances and is still under development. Resent research in the area of sensor network development focus on the application of micro sensors (MEMS) in ad hoc wireless sensor networks operated in an interoperable spatial data infrastructure (SDI) according to the sensor web enablement (SWE) guidelines of the OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) for real-time monitoring of landslides like the SLEWS -Sensor based Landslide Early Warning System. The SLEWS sensor nodes provide next to motion detection also a 3D acceleration data to evaluate direction and value of the peak acceleration. This information can be used in an event case both to monitor endangered slopes or critical infrastructures and to initiate warnings to trigger e.g. rail or road blocks. Furthermore the data from the sensor network can be provided in real-time for shake or alert maps via standardized interfaces.

The objective of the integrated geohazard evaluation and preliminary risk map development
is two-fold: (1) to compile the available data contributing to the un-engineered fill, cavity,
and other risk factors related to ground subsidence and damage of housing units and
infrastructure in the Abu Dhabi City Municipality (ADM); and (2) to identify the key
geohazards including halite deposits, loose soils, cavities, and un-engineered fill contributing
to geotechnical problems. As a result of this effort, ADM developed a
preliminary risk map from the baseline data collected through spatial interpolation techniques.

Hydrogeochemical investigations with emphasis on groundwater fluoride concentrations were carried out in the Shivani watershed area, Karnataka, South India. This drought-prone watershed is characterised by poor groundwater potential and is composed of different lithounits like gneisses, migmatites, tonalites, mafics–ultramafics, conglomerates and quartzites. Analysis of spatial variation of groundwater fluoride concentration through the use of GIS technology software platforms like ArcView 3.2a and MapInfo Professional 8.5 has enabled the identification of low-fluoride and high-fluoride areas within the watershed. Geochemical data indicates that 38% of groundwater samples have excessive fluoride concentration which poses a health risk to the population of the area. Correlation studies indicate that higher groundwater alkalinity activates leaching of fluoride resulting in elevated concentrations of fluoride. No other significant geochemical interrelationship could be identified between fluoride and rest of the physico-chemical parameters owing to the lack of any significant correlation coefficients. This holds good in the case of both low-fluoride (<1.5 mg/L) and high-fluoride (>1.5 mg/L) groundwaters of the watershed. However, differential or non-uniform type (positive or negative) of coefficient of correlation is observed between fluoride at different levels and other physico-chemical parameters. Among the different lithounits of the study area, gneisses house comparatively more number of high-fluoride groundwaters. Fluoride-bearing minerals biotite, hornblende and apatite are the probable natural sources of groundwater fluoride.

A risk management framework, consisting of geohazard identification, assessment and management, can be used to significantly reduce pipeline failure rates from geohazards compared to industry averages. Since the late 1990s, BGC Engineering Inc. (BGC) has supported pipeline operators with geohazard management programs. In December 2017, geohazard inventories had been completed for over 300,000 km of pipelines, with the data stored in BGC’s online geohazard management system, CambioTM. Pipeline failures (defined as leaks or ruptures) resulting from hydrotechnical or geotechnical hazards have been tracked for pipelines at differing levels of risk management, from cases where only inventories were created to where the full risk management life cycle has been undertaken. Inventory creation alone does not appear to have a marked impact on failure rates. However, pipelines that have been inspected by qualified geohazard experts, and have been assessed and prioritized for monitoring and mitigation, show a significant decrease in the rate of geohazard-related failures compared to the average North American and European failure rate of 0.02 per 1000 km per year (for 2005 to 2014). In areas of high geohazard exposure, geohazard failure rates have been shown to decline by a factor of 3 to 4 with proper application of a geohazard management program.

Analysis of changing channel pattern of flood prone Damodar River of West Bengal is very much essential for the investigation of surface expression of hidden hydrogeomorphic changes. It provides a sound basis for predicting future changes of river dynamics, especially those taking place after dam constructions by Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC). Using toposheets, satellite images and Geographic Information System (GIS), we have measured temporal pattern (1943 – 2006) of river plan-form with the help of Mueller’s Sinuosity Indexes to unfold the magnitude of river instability, contributing factors of sinuosity and the chances of flood with a probability of changing course.

Le tsunami du 26 décembre 2004 et le nombre considérable des victimes qu'il a causé a été à l'origine d'une prise en conscience générale des scientifiques et des politiciens sur ce type de risques en raison de la forte concentration de la population mondiale et des infrastructures le long des côtes. Le Maroc a été déjà dévasté par des tsunamis dont celui qui a suivi le tremblement de terre dit de Lisbonne (M = 9) survenu le 1er novembre 1755, dont les vagues ont envahi l'ensemble des villes situées le long de la côte atlantique. Les effets de ce cataclysme, comme l'ont décrit plusieurs historiens et navigateurs, et de ceux qui ont eu lieu auparavant, sont toujours visibles dans le paysage sous la forme de blocs épars, et dans les sédiments estuariens sous la forme de minces lits marins incrustés dans les sédiments vaseux. Bien que le risque de tsunami par décollement d'un panneau du volcan de La Palma aux Canaries reste réel, le Maroc est surtout exposé aux tsunamis liés aux séismes atlantiques, qui ont lieu régulièrement le long de la Zone de Failles Azores-Gibraltar. Concernant la région atlantique, les études océanographiques de détail menées récemment ont permis de déterminer quatre failles pouvant engendrer des tsunamis : les failles bordant le Banc de Gorringe et la plaine du Fer à Cheval, la faille du Banc de Guadalquivir et la faille de Marquês de Pombal. Différents scénarios ont récemment été envisagés par plusieurs équipes scientifiques du Portugal, d'Espagne et du Maroc pour simuler les conséquences possibles provoquées par un tsunami lié au jeu de ces failles, et pour proposer un système d'alerte régional similaire à ceux mis en place ailleurs. En parallèle, de nombreuses études récentes se sont penchées sur les effets potentiels de l'inondation de plusieurs villes au Maroc telles que Casablanca, Rabat-Salé et El Jadida, en prenant comme référence le tsunami de 1755. Les principaux résultats concernent la distribution géographique des quartiers à risque et la vulnérabilité des bâtiments. Comme 200 Actes de la session plénière solennelle, Rabat, 24-26 février 2015 la plupart de ces études se fait dans un cadre académique dispersé et que les gestionnaires des villes ont rarement accès à ces informations, il serait judicieux de créer un organe inter ministériel permanent des risques regroupant tous les acteurs et pouvant agir efficacement en cas de menace.

Calatayud in NE Spain is an historically important city built on recent alluvial deposits underlain by gypsum and other soluble rocks. Since its foundation by the Muslims in 716 AD, the city development has been strongly influenced by geohazards including flooding, subsidence and slope movements. Most of the flooding problems have been mitigated by diversion of the local drainage. However, dissolution of the evaporite bedrock in the urban areas continually causes subsidence and triggers rock-falls from the gypsum cliffs ...

Marine geohazard research has developed during recent decades, as human activities intensified towards deeper waters. Some recent disastrous events (e.g., the 2004 Indian Ocean and 2011 Japan tsunamis) highlighted geohazards socioeconomic impacts. Marine geohazards encompass an extensive list of features, processes, and events related to Marine Geology. In the scientific literature there are few systematic reviews concerning all of them. Using the search string
‘geohazard*’, this bibliometric-based review explored the scientific databases Web of Science and Scopus to analyze the evolution of peer-reviewed scientific publications and discuss trends and future challenges. The results revealed qualitative and quantitative aspects of 183 publications and indicated 12 categories of hazards, the categories more studied and the scientific advances. Interdisciplinary surveys focusing on the mapping and dating of past events, and the determination of triggers, frequencies, and current perspectives of occurrence (risk) are still scarce. Throughout the upcoming decade, the expansion and improvement of seafloor observatories’ networks, early
warning systems, and mitigation plans are the main challenges. Hazardous marine geological events may occur at any time and the scientific community, marine industry, and governmental agencies
must cooperate to better understand and monitor the processes involved in order to mitigate the resulting unpredictable damages.

High  arsenic  (As)  concentrations in groundwater in different zones  of Cambodia have become  a major  concern in recent years.  This paper attempts to review,  synthesize, and analyze data from available literature in order to give  an insight view  on the  spatial  arsenic contamination in Cambodia, particularly  in the province along Mekong  River.  These regions  are  located  in the low land  areas where groundwater is heavily used in domestic activities. The review covered 7 provinces; Kandal, Prey Veng, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Thom, Kratie, and Peri-urban of Phnom Penh. The data showed that  The Mekong lowlands consist broadly of alluvial material overlying shale, slate and sandstone bedrock.  Monitoring of groundwater quality has shown that  arsenic in drinking  water  has  been  failed  to  meet  WHO  guideline  (0.01mg/l)  or  the  prevailing  national standards  for arsenic.  It was found that  during the period from  2005  to  2009,  30,839  of  47,950  of national  wells  in  7 provinces  have been  tested  for arsenic  using  field test  kits.  The results  have revealed that  t  up to 35-38% of tube-wells within these  areas  are contaminated with arsenic above the Cambodian National Standard (50ppb).  About  2.8-3% of wells along  the Stung Saen River in
Kampong Thom  and about 50% of the  tube-wells in  the lower floodplains of the Mekong and Bassac Rivers in Kandal are contaminated.  The most highly affected province is Kandal.  In order to address the  issue,  area wise assessment of groundwater contamination, community education,  provision of preventative  medicine,  development  of  safe  rural  water  supply  mechanisms,  and  program monitoring and evaluation are of paramount importance.

The Pliocene section is considered as a target in the Nile Delta and offshore Mediterranean. A varying seismic response has been highlighted within the Neogene succession in the Nile delta central sub-basin, off-shore, the Lower Pliocene has varying seismic response, in comparison with the Upper Miocene and Middle to Upper Pliocene sections, although all of these sections are producing hydrocarbons.

The Causse of El Hajeb belongs to the Tabular Middle Atlas (TMA), in which thousands of karst landforms have been identified. Among them, collapse dolines and dissolution sinkholes have been highlighted as a source of environmental risks and geo-hazards. In particular, such sinkholes have been linked to the degradation of water quality in water springs located in the junction of the TMA and Saïss basin. Furthermore, the developments of collapse dolines in agricultural and inhabited areas enhance the risk of life loss, injury, and property damage. Here, the lack of research on newly formed cavities has exacerbated the situation. The limited studies using remote sensing or geophysical methods to determine the degree of karstification and vulnerability of this environment fail to provide the spatial extent and depth location of individual karst cavities. In order to contribute to the effort of sinkhole risk reduction in TMA, we employed remote sensing and geophysical surveys to integrate electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and self-potential (SP) for subsurface characterization of four sinkholes identified in the Causse of El Hajeb. The results revealed the existence of sinkholes, both visible and non-accessible at the surface, in carbonate rocks. The sinkholes exhibited distinct morphologies, with depths reaching 35 m. Topography, geographic coordinates and land cover information extracted on remote sensing data demonstrated that these cavities were developed in depressions in which agricultural activities are regularly performed. The fusion of these methods benefits from remote sensing in geophysical surveys, particularly in acquisition, georeferencing, processing and interpretation of geophysical data. Furthermore, our proposed method allows identification of the protection perimeter required to minimize the risks posed by sinkholes.

India has 2% of the total land area of the world but supports more than 17% of global population. Due to diverse geological environment and geodynamic processes, the country faces several types of geohazards including earthquakes, landslides, tsunami, glacial lake outburst floods, landslide dammed lake out burst floods etc. that affect the lives, economy and environment adversely. About 2% of the gross domestic product and 12% of the revenue is lost on an average annually due to various disasters that also kill several thousand people. Approximately 59% of the land territory is affected by earthquakes and falls in seismic zones III, IV and V where seismic intensities of VII, VIII and IX respectively may be expected. The northern part of the country comprises Himalayan belt that is geodynamically active, climatically sensitive and severely susceptible to landslides and flash floods besides the earthquakes. Due to changing climatic conditions, rising population and unsafe development / urbanization practices, the incidences and impacts of these geohazards are increasing. Keeping the above context in mind, the national disaster management authority in India has made attempts to assess the types and levels of these disasters that affected the country in the past and identified potential risks to different vulnerable elements based on inputs from various sectors and disciplines. The professional geologists and engineers have contributed greatly towards better scientific understanding of the geohazards and formulating effective plans for safer sustainable development. The national level policy, guidelines, plans, programmes, projects and procedures / regulatory measures focusing on technical, administrative, financial, legal and socio-cultural issues, have targeted integration of disaster risk reduction with development. The paper discusses the national initiatives with particular reference to earthquakes and landslides with a view to share and exchange the experiences in disaster risk reduction. It will help in learning good and bad practices for promoting disaster resistant / resilient development and nurturing a culture of risk avoidance, prevention, mitigation and preparedness at global level.

The stress field at a specific location is the sum of regional stress, controlled by plate-scale tectonic processes, with local sources. Here we evaluate and discuss the different sources (from geodynamic to local scale) and the controlling factors (including the Jurassic paleogeography of the Adriatic passive margin) of present-day stress in the Adriatic Sea and Periadriatic regions of Italy using two kinds of numerical models: 3D mantle scale viscoelastic models and 2.5D lithosphere scale thinshell models. The subcrustal stress field of the slabs in the Dinarides-Hellenic and Apennines-Calabrian subduction zones are characterized by downdip extension and compression, respectively. This difference is explained by the velocity of the Adriatic slab with respect to the upper mantle in the hotspot reference frame. The slab in the Calabrian subduction zone is encroached and down-pushed, whereas the slab in the Hellenic subduction zone is sustained by the mantle flow. At the plate scale, the upper crustal stress field at the Apennines front is governed by the different nature of the lithosphere (probably oceanic in the Ionian Sea and continental elsewhere), which in turn determines first-order rotations of the stress axes. Second order rotations of the stress axes depend on the Jurassic paleogeography and consequent differential advancement of the thrust fronts, with recesses and salient occurring in correspondence with Jurassic structural highs and lows respectively. The eastward relative motion of the mantle with respect of the lithosphere enhances the onset of NW-SE oriented compression within the Adriatic plate, consistent with observations.
Finally, 2.5D thin-shell models demonstrate that present-day stress does not simply follow the long wavelength pattern (500-1000 km) due to plate tectonics and mantle interaction, but is greatly affected by the presence of second and third order sources, like crustal structure, faults and topography. Most importantly, these factors give an observable effect in data.

""Начиная с 2011 г. ПРООН Таджикистана проводит работы по реализации проекта Tajik-Afghan Poverty Reduction Initiative (TAPRI), финансируемого  правительством Японии и направленного на решение проблем в приграничных районах на юге Таджикистана и севере Афганистана.
Таджикистан и Афганистан - две страны, находящиеся в одном из наиболее изолированных районов центральной Азии, отличающемся суровыми климатическими условиями, высокой расчлененностью рельефа и подверженному интенсивному воздействию различных видов природных опасностей, таких как землетрясения, оползни, сели, наводнения, овражная и речная эрозия, просадки в лессах и т.д. 
По данным Комитета по чрезвычайным ситуациям Таджикистана. только в 2000-2009 году от стихийных бедствий пострадало около 10 000 человек, среднегодовой ущерб составил около 24 млн.долларов. Падение производства, уменьшение инвестиций в природоохранные мероприятия приводят к деструкции инфраструктуры орошаемого земледелия,  разрушению противопаводковых инженерных сооружений, создававшихся еще в советские годы и возрастанию ущерба от опасных экзогенных геологических процессов.
Еще более угрожающая ситуация складывается в Афганистане, который относится к наименее развитым странам в мире. Здесь негативное воздействие природных опасностей усугубляется разрушенной, в результате  30-летних боевых действий инфраструктурой страны. Продолжительные войны нанесли не только прямые материальные и человеческие потери этой многострадальной стране, но и разрушили механизмы прогнозирования и смягчения ущерба от природных катастроф. Так в результате только наводнений, произошедших в период с марта по май 2010 года пострадало около 100 000 человек, из них значительная часть именно в северных приграничных провинциях Афганистана. Невозможность противостоять неблагоприятным факторам внешней среды, беззащитность человека перед лицом природных опасностей приводят к еще большему обнищанию населения, дестабилизации обстановки в регионе и препятствуют созданию нормальных условий  по развитию сельского хозяйства, торговли,  инфраструктуры.
Отсутствие в настоящее время актуальных оценок состояния сложной и динамически меняющейся природной среды в этих трансграничных районах не позволяет эффективно проводить оценки риска и планирование мероприятий по смягчению последствий природных катастроф.
Восполнить этот пробел – провести изучение, дать характеристику и подготовить современную, научно обоснованную  геолого-картографическую основу масштаба 1:200 000, отражающую развитие основных опасных природных процессов  для данного региона и является миссией настоящего исследования.
Работы по проекту «Conduct Regional Characterization Study in order to identify potential risks both in Tajikistan and Afghanistan target territories. Create hazard maps following the assessment»  выполнены в период с 20  февраля по 28 марта 2012 г. Работы выполнены на основании индивидуального  контракта №IC/2012/32 от 17 февраля 2012 года между United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) и кандидатом геолого-минералогических наук Виктором Снежко.
В работе по проекту принимали участие  кандидат геолого-минералогических наук Круткина Ольга (полевые работы, подготовка карт и написание текста отчета), национальный консультант кандидат геолого-минералогических наук Саидов Мирзо (полевые работы, подготовка карт и написание текста отчета), национальный консультант Ахмедов Акмал (полевые работы, подготовка карт и написание текста отчета), кандидат географических наук Пшеничный Кирилл (подготовка карт), кандидат геолого-минералогических наук Минаев Владислав (подготовка карт), Дудник Александр (оцифровка карт), Сабзалиев Бунед (организация и общая координация работ).
В контур исследований полностью или частично вошли 3 административных  района Хатлонской области (Farkhor,  Hamadoni,  Shurobod) на территории Республики Таджикистан, а так же 3 административных района провинции Кундуз (Qalai-I-Zal, Imam Sahib, Dashti Archi) и 3 административных района провинции Тахар (Yangi Qala,Darqad, Chah Ab)  на территории Исламской Республики Афганистан  (рис.1), общая площадь работ составила более 10 700 км2. Работы выполнены в 5 этапов, и включали:
- подготовительный период (этап №1 -  сбор информации),
- этап № 2 - построение предварительных карт,
- этап № 3 – подготовка предварительного отчета),
- этап № 4 - проведение полевых работ на территории Республики Таджикистан и Исламской Республики Афганистан (полевые работы по территории Исламской Республики Афганистан  выполнены не полностью, в связи с запретом ООН на посещение ряда районов.  по причине невозможности обеспечения безопасности сотрудников),
- этап № 5 –  уточнение по результатам полевых работ предварительных материалов,  подготовка окончательных карт и отчета).
В результате выполненных работ на территории района выделены, описаны и оценены следующие природные опасности: землетрясения, наводнения, оползни, сели, эрозия речная и овражная, суффозия, карст, просадки. Подготовлены 7 карт опасных природных процессов в масштабе 1:200 000 и оценки опасностей каждого процесса,  «Карта комплексной оценки природных опасностей масштаба 1:200 000», 7 схем подверженности населенных пунктов опасным процессам масштаба 1:400 000 – 1:600 000 (все карты и схемы подготовлены в  цифровом и аналоговом виде), сформирована база данных цифровых материалов (растровые, геопривязанный растр и векторые данные) объемом около 30Гб,  подготовлен  окончательный отчет состоящий из 5 глав: глава 1- обзор физико-географических условий, климата, геологического строения, населения и  административного деления территории; глава 2 – геологическое строение; глава 3 -  анализ опасных природных процессов, развитых на площади работ; глава 4 – оценка территории по комплексу природных опасностей; глава 5 – предложения по мероприятиям, смягчающим воздействие опасных природных процессов; приложение 1- комплект карт в аналоговом виде,  приложение 2 - описание методологии и процесса выполнения исследований, описание базы данных цифровых материалов, приложение 3 - Каталог населенных пунктов, подверженных опасным природным процессам.
Проведенные исследования позволили откартировать на территории целевого района ареалы развития природных опасностей и выполнить комплексную оценку по всему набору опасных природных процессов - около 2267 км2 (21%) относится к «чрезвычайно опасной» категории, 7432 км2 (69%) к «высоко опасной» категории и 1000 км2 (9,3%) к «умеренно опасной» категории. Основным региональным фактором, определяющим общий уровень опасности целевого района, является сейсмичность. Далее по значимости,  для горной части следуют сели и оползни, для равнинной – наводнения. На Таджикской части наиболее высокий уровень природной опасности отмечается на территории джамоатов Догистон, Ел и Шуробод (горы) и на территории ряда Джамоатов района Хамадони и Фархор - в пойме рек Пяндж и Кызылсу (равнина). На Афганской части – юго-восточный участок административного района Чахи-Аб (провинция Тахар, горы), пойма реки Пяндж, нижнее течение рек Джильгай-Янгикала и Кундуз, устье реки Кокча (равнина, Провинции Тахар и Кундуз).   
На всем протяжении работ авторы обращались за консультациями к руководителям и сотрудникам государственных служб, научно-исследовательских институтов,  неправительственных национальных организаций обеих стран, а так же в представительства международных организаций работающих под эгидой ООН. Как правило, цели и задачи проводимых исследований находили понимание у наших партнеров, поэтому авторы отчета выражают глубокую благодарность за помощь, оказанную в процессе выполнения работ :
Бахтдавлатову Рахмонбеку Давлатбековичу – первому заместителю начальника  Главного управление геологии при Правительстве Р Т, Алишо Шомахмадову директору ИАЦ КЧС при Правительстве Р Т, Азимову Алимардон Шоирмардоновичу директору института ФАЗО Государственного комитета по землеустройству и геодезии Республики Таджикистан и Шахбозову Шахбозу Амзалиевичу – главному инженеру института ФАЗО, НИЦ Государственного Комитета по геодезии и землеустройству Республики Таджикистан, Фаршеду Каримову - д ф.-м.н. зам. директора Института геологии, сейсмологии и сейсмостойкого строительства АН РТ, сотрудникам «World Health Organization», «International Organization for Migration»,  Имомберди Бердову программному сотруднику НПО «FOCUS Humanitarian Assistance» в Тадикистане, Джумаевой Светлане – исполнительному директору «Centre for climate change and disaster reduction»,  доктору  Мохаммаду Даим Кахару – генеральному директору Афганского Национального Управления по Борьбе со Стихийными Бедствиями, Мокиму Азизи – административному аналитику UNDP-Afghanistan,  Айдану О’Лири – главе OCHA-Afghanistan,  доктору .Эмлину Хагену –  Агентства 3С НАТО, Стефано Дисперати – главному информационному сотруднику iMMAP в Афганистане, Нуру Мохаммаду Кашани – главному программному сотруднику «FOCUS Humanitarian Assistance» в Афганистане.
Кроме того, авторы выражают свою искреннюю признательность сотрудникам UNDP-Tajikistan, принимавшим участие в организационном и техническом обеспечении работ по данному проекту. ""

Mbuta area is situated along the M1 road from Mzuzu city to Karonga district in northern Malawi. It is located on a gently sloping area comprising talus materials that are probably eroded from a tectonic slope west of Mbuta. Slope stability of the area has been affected by a road cut across the unconsolidated talus materials. Mbuta area experienced a landslide that damaged infrastructure i.e. one house thereby displacing its inhabitants and part of M1 road in February 2020. It was therefore necessary to carry out geological investigation within the area to ascertain the landslide triggering mechanism. Our field work at Mbuta noted oversaturation of sedimentary strata i.e. sandstone, mudstone and siltstone as water seepage was observed in mudstone layer along a road cut. Mudstone has the ability of swelling when it sucks water; it swells more perpendicular to the bedding plane than along the bedding. The mudstone at Mbuta may have sucked water and consequently swelled both vertically and horizontally facilitating development of cracks on the overlying sandstone. The swelling mudstone underneath the sandstone might have intensified development of cracks on the overlying oversaturated sandstone making it unstable. Macro-seismic investigation within Mbuta showed no earthquake occurrence prior to the slide; rainfall pattern analysis for the area showed heavy downpour prior to the slide. Results from this geological investigation concluded that heavy downpour on the gently sloping sedimentary strata may have weakened the strata thereby triggering the landslide.

Submarine landslides on open continental slopes can be prodigious in scale. They are an important process for global sediment fluxes, and can generate very damaging tsunamis. Submarine landslides are far harder to monitor directly than terrestrial landslides, and much greater uncertainty surrounds their preconditioning factors and triggers. Submarine slope failure often occurs on remarkably low (< 2°) gradients that are almost always stable on land, indicating that particularly high excess pore pressures must be involved. Earthquakes trigger some large submarine landslides, but not all major earthquakes cause widespread slope failure. The headwalls of many large submarine landslides appear to be located in water depths that are too deep for triggering by gas hydrate dissociation. The available evidence indicates that landslide occurrence is either weakly (or not) linked to changes in sea level or atmospheric methane abundance, or the available dates for open continental slope landslides are too imprecise to tell. Similarly, available evidence does not strongly support a view that landslides play an important role in methane emissions that cause climatic change. However, the largest and best-dated open continental slope landslide (the Storegga Slide) coincides with a major cooling event 8,200 years ago. This association suggests that caution may be needed when stating that there is no link between large open slope landslides and climate change.

Soft sensitive clays like quick clays are well known in Scandinavia and in some regions in Canada. The salt pore water of these marine clays has been leached out since last glaciations and left a brittle mineral structure. Slides in quick clays can be extremely disastrous, as in ...

This research focused on the mode of magnesite mineralisation within the host rocks in  Folovhodwe  deposit.  Two  hostrocks  and  the  hanging  wall  were  sampled  from Folovhodwe Mine. The investigation was undertaken to establish the way magnesite was  formed  within  the  hostrocks.  The  study  established  the following  rock  types: basalt (hostrock), dolerite sill (hostrock) and sandstone (hanging wall), as well as the magnesite ore occurrence in the study area.
Petrographic studies and geochemical analysis were used to establish the mode of magnesite  mineralisation  within  basalt  and  dolerite  sill.  The  major  rock-forming minerals  of  basalt  are  plagioclase  and  clinopyroxene,  and  of  dolerite  are  olivine,
orthopyroxene,  clinopyroxene  and  plagioclase.  Petrographic  studies  have  shown evidence of alterations of the hostrocks through the presence of sericite,  smectite, talc and serpentine.
The geochemical analysis of the hostrocks showed lower concentrations  of MgO in basalt (3.61%) as compared to dolerite (30.75%). The analysis also indicated 51% SiO2 in basalt and 41.14% SiO2 in dolerite. Geochemical analysis also showed that
the  magnesite  ore  hosted  in  dolerite  comprised  65%  MgCO3
and  in  basalt  it  was 16% MgCO3.
The magnesite mineralisation took place along the joints, cracks and crevices within weathered  basalt  and  dolerite,  resulting  from  the  carbonation  of  forsterite  and enstatite that were altered to amphibole, serpentine and talc in the presence of CO2
and H2O to produce magnesite, smectite, palygorskite and sepiolite. Forsterite and enstatite were the primary sources of the Mg2+ ion.
The high content of olivine and pyroxene in dolerite led to the abundance of the Mg2+ ion  during  alteration,  hence,  the  dominance  of  magnesite  in  dolerite.  However, further work is recommended  to ascertain  the  role  of  temperature  and pressure  in the formation of magnesite within basalt and dolerite in the study area.

Structural studies of synorogenic basins in Timor using field and remote sensing techniques provide new structural and geomorphic evidence for syn-collisional extension in the converging plate boundary zone between the Australian Plate and Banda Arc. Fault mapping and kinematic analysis at scales ranging from outcrop (<1 m2) to the dimensions of the active orogen in East Timor (~100 km2) identify a predominance of NW-SE oriented dextral-normal faults and NE-SW oriented sinistral-normal faults that collectively bound large (5-20 km2) bedrock massifs throughout the island. These fault systems intersect at non-Andersonian conjugate angles of approximately 120° and accommodate an estimated 20 km of NE-directed extension across the Timor orogen based on reconstructions of fault-dismembered massifs. Major orogen-parallel ENE-oriented faults on the northern and southern sides of Timor exhibit normal-sinistral and normal-dextral kinematics, respectively. The overall pattern of deformation is one of lateral crustal extrusion sub-parallel to the Banda Arc. Stratigraphic relationships suggest that extrusion began prior to 5.5 Ma, before pronounced rapid uplift of the orogen. We link this to progressive coupling of the arc to an underthrust plateau on the Australian Plate, and subduction of its ocean crust. Our results enable us to track the structural evolution of the upper crust during dramatic plate-boundary reorganizations accompanying the transition from subduction to collision. The deformation structures that we document suggest that both upper and lower plate deformation during incipient island arc-continent collision was largely controlled by the geometry and topography of the lower plate.

This study aims at evaluation of seismic soil liquefaction hazard potential at Probashi Palli Abasan Project area of Tongi, Gazipur, exploiting standard penetration test (SPT) data of 15 boreholes, following Simplified Procedure. Liquefaction potential index (LPI) of each borehole was determined and then cumulative frequency distribution of clustered LPI values of each surface geology unit was determined assuming cumulative frequency at LPI = 5 as the threshold value for liquefaction initiation. By means of geotechnical investigation two surface geological units—Holocene flood plain deposits, and Pleistocene terrace deposits were identified in the study area. We predicted that 14% and 24% area of zones topped by Pleistocene terrace deposits and zones topped by Holocene flood plain deposits, respectively, would exhibit surface manifestation of liquefaction as a result of 7 magnitude earthquake. The engendered hazard map also depicts site specific liquefaction intensity through LPI values of respective boreholes, and color index, which was delineated by mapping with ArcGIS software. Very low to low, and low to high liquefaction potential, respectively, was found in the areas covered by Pleistocene terrace deposits and Holocene flood plain deposits. LPI values of both units are such that sand boils could be generated where LPI > 5.

"Beginning from 2011, UNDP has been implementing Tajik-Afghan Poverty Reduction Initiative (TAPRI), financed by the Government of Japan and aimed at addressing cross-border issues in the south of Tajikistan and the north of Afghanistan. 

Tajikistan and Afghanistan are two landlocked countries situated in one of the most isolated regions of Central Asia characterized by harsh weather conditions, extreme roughness of terrain and are prone to severe impact of scores of natural hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides, mudflows, floods, ravine and river erosion, loess subsidence etc.
The current lack of relevant tools to assess a complex and ever-changing environment in these cross-border areas does not allow an effective assessment of risks and planning for natural disaster mitigation.

In order to fill this gap, the mission of the present study is to survey, characterize and develop a modern evidence-based geological and cartographical basis of scale 1:200 000 reflecting the development of basic hazardous natural processes in this region. 

From February 20 to March 28, 2012, the project had carried out Regional Characterization Study in order to identify potential risks both in Tajik and Afghan target territories and had developed hazard maps following the assessment.  Project activities were carried out on the basis of individual contract  between United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Phd of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences Mr. Viktor Snezhko.
The following project staff has been involved in project activities: Phd of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences, Ms. Olga Krutkina (field work, map development and report-writing), National Project Consultant, Mr. Mirzo Saidov, Phd of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences (field work, map development and report-writing), National Project Consultant, Mr. Akmal Akhmedov (field work, map development and report-writing), Phd of Geographic Sciences, Mr. Kirill Pshenichny (map development),  Phd of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences, Mr. Vladislav Minaev (map development), Mr. Alexander Dudnik (map marking) and Mr. Bunyod Sabzaliev (project logistics and general coordination).

The geographic boundaries of the survey have comprised 3 administrative districts of Khatlon (Farkhor, Hamadoni and Shurobod) on the Tajik side, 3 administrative districts of Kunduz Province (Qalai-Za;, Imam sahib, Dashti Archi) as well as 3 administrative districts of Takhar Province (Yangi Qala, Darqad, Chah Ab) on the Afghan side (see Fig. 1), total survey area is over 10 700 km2.
As a result of work performed, we have highlighted, described and assessed the following natural hazards: earthquakes, floods, landslides, mudflows, river and ravine erosion, suffusion, karst and subsidence.  We have prepared 7 hazardous natural processes maps at scale 1:200 000 and risk assessment for each process,  Integrated Natural Risk Assessment at scale 1:200 000, 7 diagrams of human settlement exposure to hazardous processes at scale 1:400 000 – 1:600 000 (all maps and diagrams are prepared in digital and analog form),  digital materials database has been set up (bit-mapped, georeferenced bitmap and vector data) of roughly 30 GB, a final report has been prepared comprising 5 chapters: chapter 1: overview of physical and geographical conditions, climate, geological aspect, demographics and territorial administrative division; chapter 2: geological aspect; chapter 3: analysis of hazardous natural processes common to survey area; chapter 4:  assessment of survey area on aggregate of natural hazards; chapter 5: recommendations on interventions mitigating the impact of hazardous natural processes; addendum 1: set of maps in analogue form, addendum 2: description of methodology and survey process, description of digital database, addendum 3: Catalogue of population centers, prone to hazardous natural processes.

Undertaking of survey has allowed mapping of surfaces of natural hazards evolution and doing a holistic assessment on a full spectrum of hazardous natural processes in the target district area – of which roughly 2267 km2 (21%) belong to extremely hazardous category, 7432 km2 (69%) to highly hazardous and 1000 km2 (9,3%) to moderately hazardous. Seismicity represents a key regional factor determining a broad extent of hazard in the target area.  Next in terms of significance are mudflows and landslides for mountainous parts and floods for flatlands.  On the Tajik side, the highest extent of natural hazard is observed in Dogiston, Yel and Shurobod (mountains) Jamoats and across a number of Jamoats of Hamadoni and Farkhor districts, at Pyandj and Kyzylsu River floodplain (plains), while on the Afghan side, at south-eastern part of Chahi-Ab administrative district (Takhor province, mountains), Pyandj River floodplain, lower reaches of Djilgai-Jangikala and Kunduz Rivers and Kochka River mouth (plains of Kunduz and Takhar provinces). 

Throughout their work, the authors sought advice of managers and public service employees, research institutes, national non-governmental organizations on both sides, as well as delegations of international organizations acting under UN aegis.  In general, goals and objectives of surveys were received well by our partners. Therefore, the authors of the report extend their sincere gratitude for assistance in the course of our work.  Our special thanks go to:
Bakhtdavlatov Rahmonbek Davlatbekovich – the first deputy chief of General Directorate for Geology under the Government of Tajikistan, Alisho Shomahmadov, Head of Inf. Management and Analitical Center at Committee of ES&CD Tajikistan, Azimov Alimardon Shoirmardonovich, Director of FAZO Institute of the State Committee for Land Management and Geodesy of Tajikistan and Shahbozov Shahboz Amzalievich, chief engineer of FAZO Institute, Research Center of the State Committee for Land Management and Geodesy of Tajikistan, Farshed Karimov – Deputy Director of the Institute of Geology, Seismology and  Earthquake Engineering of the Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, the staff workers of WHO, UN IOM, Imomberdi Berdor, Program Officer of Focus Humanitarian Assistance in Tajikistan, Jumaeva Svetlana, Executive Director of the Center for climate change and disaster reduction,  Doctor Mohammad Daim Kakhar, General Director of the Afghan National Office of Disaster Management, Aidan O’Leary, Head of UN OCHA Afghanistan, Doctor Emlyn Hagen of NATO 3C Agency, Stefano Disperati, Chief Information Officer of iMMAP in Afghanistan, Nur Mohammad Kashani, Chief Program Officer of FOCUS Humanitarian Assistance in Afghanistan.
Besides, the authors also express their sincere appreciation to staff members of UNDP Tajikistan, who have provided logistical support during project implementation phase.

"""""

This paper describes the systematic and holistic approach to geo-risk reduction
that has been developed and applied to numerous deep water oil and gas projects and is
now being used for shallow water wind farm developments. Key elements of the approach
are:-Regional Desk Studies to establish the geological context and develop preliminary
Ground Models and Risk Management Strategies.