English Grammar: Verbs

(A collection of PowerPoint presentations)

Gabriela Lojová

Bratislava 2013
©Autorka: doc. PhDr. Gabriela Lojová, PhD.
Názov: English Grammar: Verbs

Recenzenti: doc. PhDr. Daniel Lančarič, PhD.

PhDr. Mária Kostelníková, PhD.
Peter Blight, PGCE BA
Jazyková korektúra: Peter Blight, PGCE BA

Vydavateľ: Z-F LINGUA Bratislava

Tlač CD: Z-F LINGUA Bratislava
Počet: 150
Rok vydania: 2013

ISBN: 978-80-89328-83-3
EAN: 9788089328833
Content
Introduction ................................................. 5
Resources .............................................. 7
1. Verbs 1 .................................................. 8
2. Verbs 2 .................................................. 16
3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs ....................... 23
4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs ......................... 33
5. Marginal modal auxiliaries .................... 48
6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase ..... 57
7. Tenses 1 ................................................. 63
8. Tenses 2 ................................................. 75
9. Voice ...................................................... 85
10. Mood ..................................................... 91
11. Adverbs .................................................. 96
List of abbreviations

A - adverbial N - noun
Adj - adjective NP - noun phrase
AdjP - adjective phrase Od - direct object
Adv - adverb Oi - indirect object
AdvP - adverb phrase P - predicate
AE - American English PE - periphrastic equivalent
BE - British English S - subject
Co - object complement SL - Slovak language
Cs - subject complement V - verb
MA - modal auxiliary VP - verb phrase
Introduction
This CD contains the collection of PowerPoint presentations accompanying my
lectures on English grammar at the Department of English language and literature,
Faculty of Education, Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia.
The idea of publishing it as a CD comes from my students: as nowadays more and
more students are using their laptops etc. at lectures, they repeatedly ask me for
the e-copy of my presentations. Logically, they have come to the conclusion that
listening to the lectures would be easier and more effective if they had the
PowerPoint presentations in their computer (or in printed copies) and could just
write down their own notes.
Another stimulus comes from observing students during my lectures: try as I may to
get them involved in interaction, to think about the grammar point presented, give
their own examples, clarify and ask their questions, I can only watch them hurriedly
copying my notes from the screen. At best, some may be partially listening to me (at
least those with a higher level of multitasking ability in a foreign language, enabling
them to divide their attention). Once they have copied my notes, there is never
enough time for discussion. Having my PowerPoint presentations in their computers
(or copies printed beforehand) would free their channel capacity; thus they could
better focus their attention on following the lecture, participate actively, and
contribute more to discussions. They may simply insert their own notes in a manner
which reflects their particular way of understanding and constructing their inner
representations of the English grammar system in accordance with their learning
styles and strategies. Furthermore, those willing to work more effectively may pre-
read them in advance, activate their previous knowledge more easily and pre-
programme themselves for the lecture. In so doing they can make the most of the
time spent at school.
The content of the CD follows the syllabus of the course and covers all the relevant
linguistic aspects of verbs and verb phrases at university level (advanced level - C1).
General linguistic characteristics of verbs and verb phrases (structural, semantic,
syntactic, and functional) are followed by a linguistic analysis of primary and modal
auxiliary verbs. Subsequently, all grammatical categories of verb phrases are analysed
(time, tense, aspect, mood, voice). The last presentation is devoted to adverbs as a
word class functionally closely related to verbs. As is obvious, in English grammar
there is no unified system of explaining English verbs: different linguists or educators
writing grammar books present it differently following their own logic. It is therefore
our endeavour to present, where possible, the linguistic knowledge in the system that
is compatible with the system of Slovak grammar. In so doing it is possible to utilize
Slovak learners´ metalinguistic awareness as well as to develop their comparative
grammatical thinking.
Following the basic principles of effective PowerPoint presentations supporting
lectures, no full texts but only supporting notes are presented in the material. The
main objective is to provide students with a complex system of linguistic grammar
knowledge transformed into pedagogical grammar, to highlight the most important
characteristics and to give examples illustrating the grammar points discussed. Both
the full reference texts recommended for studying and the workbooks for practicing
covered grammar points are listed in Resources.
It is my sincere belief that students will find this CD useful, that it will help them in
their endeavour to create their own inner representation of the system of English
verbs and also to overcome the pitfalls of English grammar.

Gabriela Lojová
Resources
1. Bilber, D., Conrad, S. Leech, G.: Student grammar of spoken and written English.
Longman 2002.
2. Bilber D., Johansson, S. Leech......: Longman grammar of spoken and written English.
Longman 2007.
3. Carter, R., McCarthy, M.: Cambridge grammar of English. CUP 2006.
4. Eastwood, J.: Oxford guide to English grammar. OUP 1994.
5. Hais, K.: Anglická gramatika. SPN Bratislava 1991.
6. Hewings, M.: Advanced grammar in use. Cambridge University Press 1999.
7. Lewis, M.: The English verb. Thomson Heinl 1999
8. Quirk, R.,Greenbaum, S.: A Students grammar of the English language. Longman
2006.
9. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik J.: A grammar of contemporary English.
Longman 1992.
10. Vince, M.: Advanced language practice. MACMILLAN 2003.
Workbooks
1. Chalker, S.: A student’s English grammar workbook. Longman 1992
2. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S.: A University Grammar of English. Close, R.A.: Workbook,
Longman 1993.
3. Conrad, S., Biber, D., Leech, G.: Student grammar of spoken and written English –
workbook. Longman 2002.
4. Bázlik, M.: Gramatika angličtiny - Seminárne úlohy FFUK 1992.
5. Povolná , R.: Grammar I. Masarykova univerzita Brno 2004.
späť
English grammar: Verbs

1. VERBS 1

8
 1. Verbs 1

• Verb (V)
– word class
- clause element (predicate - P)
• Verb phrase (VP)
- consists of 1 or more verbs
- operates in a clause as V (P)

9
 1. Verbs 1

1. Classification ( full, primary, modal)

2. Structural characteristics (morpholog. forms,
finite – non-finite)
3. Semantic features (stative, dynamic)
4. Syntactic features (linking, transitive...)
5. Verb phrases
6. Contrast expressed in the verb phrase

10
 1. Verbs 1

1. Classification of verbs

1. Full verbs (main, lexical, meaningful, content...)

2. Primary (auxiliary) verbs (to be, have, do)
3. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
• Central (can, may, must, will, shall, could, might,
would, should)
• Marginal (used to, dare, need, ought to)
• Semi-auxiliary (to be able to, to be about to...)
• Modal idioms (had better, would rather, be to)
4. ( Phrasal verbs)

11
 1. Verbs 1

2. Structural characteristics
A. Morphological forms
1. base form (go, work, play...)

2. –s (goes, works, plays...)

3. –ing participle – gerund spelling ch. !!!

- present /active irregular v. !!!
4. –ed - past tense (ed1) pronunc.
- past /passive part.(ed2)

Some V may have 3,5,6,8 morphological forms

(irregular verbs)

12
 1. Verbs 1

2. Structural characteristics

B. Finiteness
1. finite V -s
- past form (ed1)
- base – present
- imperative
- pres. subjunctive

2. non-finite - - ing participle

- - ed participle (ed2)
- to infinitive
- bare infinitive (without to)

13
 1. Verbs 1

3. Semantic features 1
- according to the meaning in a given context

1. Stative 1. V of mind (know, think, forget, believe...)*

2. V of 5 senses (see, smell, hear, taste..) ***
- refer to states
3. V of emotions (love, hate, prefer...)*
- no progressive f.
4. V of possession (have, own, belong...)*
- (no imperative)
5. Some other V (need, cost, depend, consist)
6. Momentary V (jump, tap, kick...)
2. Dynamic 7. Transitional V ( stop, die, fall, drown...)

- refer to activities • Activity V

- admit progressive f. • Process V
- admit imperative • Many stative V can be also dynamic –
different meaning !!!

14
 1. Verbs 1

3. Semantic features 1a
- according to the meaning in a given context
1. V of mind (know, think, forget, believe...)*
I am thinking about what you think of me. (dynamic, stative)
2. V of 5 senses (see, smell, hear, taste..) ***
The rose I am smelling smells lovely. (dynamic, stative)
I can see you. – I see you.
The soup tastes delicious. (adj.)– deliciously (adv. - SL interference)
3. V of emotions (love, hate, prefer...)*
I like chocolate.
(I´m loving it! ???)
4. V of possession (have, own, belong...)*
John has a new car.
(I´m having a shower as finally I have (got) a shower. (dynamic, stative))
5. Some other V (need, cost, depend, consist ... )
6. Momentary V (jump, tap, kick ...)
The child is jumping. (regular repetition)
7. Transitional V ( stop, die, fall
The car is stopping. (= slowing down) späť
15
English grammar: Verbs

2. VERBS 2

16
 2. Verbs 2

1. Classification (full, primary, modal)

2. Structural characteristics (morphological forms,
finite – non-finite)
3. Semantic features (stative, dynamic)

4. Syntactic features (linking, transitive...)

5. Verb phrases
6. Contrast expressed in the verb phrase

17
 2. Verbs 2

4. Syntactic features
- according to the function in a given clause
1. Linking (copular) V - Cs, A - Be, become, make, elect, grow, go, get...
(SVC, SVA) - Senses: seem, feel, look, sound, appear...
1. Intransitive V -O - It is raining.
2. Transitive V -O
1. Monotransitive - Od - He wrote a letter.
2. Ditransitive – Oi+Od - I gave him a book.
3. Complex tr. – Od+Co - I find grammar easy.
- Od+ A - He put the book on the table.
3. Ergative V
(intransitive or monotransitive with the - Mary opened the door.
same meaning) The door opened.

Open, ring, cook, boil, wash, sell ...

18
 2. Verbs 2

5. Verb phrases (VP) 1

• VP operates in a clause as V (predicate)
• VP consist of 1 or more verbs (no other word classes)

A. 1.Finite / non-finite VP
When the first verb is finite - the whole phrase is finite
- the rest are non-finite verbs
Mary is being examined.
When the first verb is non-finite - the whole phrase is non-finite
- the rest are non-finite verbs
Having been examined, she could ....

B. Simple / complex VP

19
 2. Verbs 2

5. Verb phrases (VP) 2

B. 1. Simple VP - consists of 1 verb (full)
John goes home.

2. Complex VP - consists of 2 or more verbs

- modal (MA + inf.)
- perfect (have + ed2) - combinations (order)
- progressive (be + ing) - only 1 full verb (last)
- passive (be + ed2)

I can go home. I want to go home.

He must have been being examined.
(possible but practically not used)
20
 2. Verbs 2

6. Contrast expressed in the verb phrase

1. Time (future, present, past)

2. Tense (present, past)
3. Aspect (progressive, perfect)
4. Mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive)
5. Voice (active, passive)
6. Finiteness (finite, non-finite)

21
 2. Verbs 2
(Non-finite verb phrases – optional material)

Infinitive Present Past

Simple to do to have done
Progressive to be doing to have been doing
Passive to be done to have been done

Participle Active Passive

Present using being used
Perfect simple having used having been used
-progressive having been using -
Past used -

Gerund Present Past

Active doing having done
Passive being done having been done
späť
22
English grammar: Verbs

3. PRIMARY (AUXILIARY)
VERBS

(to be, have, do)

23
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

• (pomocné slovesá)
• help create various phrases
• function as
- auxiliary - operators (questions, negation)
- create verb phrases
- full verbs - own meaning

24
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

Be
1. Auxiliary verb
– progressive phrases Mary is crying.
– passive Mary was examined.
– operator Is she crying? She is not crying.
2. Full verb
– linking verb (Cs, A) She is pretty. She is here.
– different meanings
(events, age, identity, nationality, feelings, qualities, costs ... ...)
– fixed phrases He is ten. How are you? I´m cold.
We are late. How much is it? ...
– operator
– takes progressive form She is lazy. - She is being lazy.
3. Semiauxiliary verb
– to be to John is to do it. Who else is to come?
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 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

Do 1

1. Auxiliary
– operator
• interrogative Do you work?
• negative I don’t work.
• negative imperative Don’t go there!
– emphatic
• affirmative I do like you.
• imperative Do sit down! Do come on time!

26
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

Do 2
2. Full verb
- transitive meaning (Od)
John did something interesting.
- collocations (do vs. make – process vs. product)*1
(do me a favour, do your homework...)
- phrases with a gerund
Mary did the shopping, the ironing, ...
- fixed phrases How are you doing? What do you do?
How do you do? I could do with coffee. ...

- takes an operator What do you do?

3. Pro-form ( form used instead of other full verbs to avoid repetition)
Do you study? Yes, I do. (instead of study)

27
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

Have 1
1. Auxiliary
– perfect phrases She has written five books.
– operator Have you read it? I haven´t done it.

2. semi-auxiliary verb
have to - obligation (external) I have to go home.
have got to (gotta) – (used only in present tense)
- Various meanings:
I have (got) to study hard. - obligation (spoken)
I (have) got a book. - possession
I´ve got a letter. - receive
I´ve got it somewhere. - put
I´ve got you a book. - bring
I´ve got it! - understand
I´ve got you! - Gotcha!
... ... ...
28
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

*1 - some collocations

To do To make
- my best - a mistake
- a course - an effort
- me a favour - a (phone) call
- good (harm) - an excuse
- homework / housework - a fuss / a mess
- a test / an exam - love
- well - money
- business (with) - a noise
... ... - progress
- trouble
- a speech
... ...

29
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

Have 2
3. full verb - various meanings:
1. Possession I have / had many books.

BE- auxiliary v. Have you a book ? (formal)

Have you got a book? Did you have ...?
AE – full verb Do you have a book?
- false possession: to have flu ...
- logical relation: to have fun, to have a chance ...
- fixed phrases: to have a cold ...

2. Multiword phrases

30
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs

Have 3
3. full verb - various meanings:
2. Multiword phrases
- “Action” have + noun to have a shower, to have lunch ...
- dynamic We are having lunch.
- translated by 1 verb sprchujeme sa, obedujeme ...
- “Empty” have (give, take, make) - nominalization !!!
to have /give a lecture
- meaning „a bit of“ to have a swim – to swim
- use also adjectives I had a quick wash.
- dynamic We were having a chat.
- Phrases
to have something done I have my car repaired.
(compare to: I have repaired my car.)
to have somebody do st. * 2 I have a mechanic repair my car. 31
 3. Primary (auxiliary) verbs
*2 - related phrases

• To make sb. _do st. (strong = to force sb. to do st.)

The teacher made me _study hard.

!!! but passive: I was made to study hard.

• To get sb. to do st.
Get your pupils to open the books.

• To have sb. _do st.

I have a waiter _ bring some coffee.
I have students _ find (the) examples.
späť

32
English grammar: Verbs

4. MODAL (AUXILIARY)
VERBS

(MA)

33
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs

• Classification:

1.Central
(can, may, must , will, shall, could might, would, should)
2. Marginal
(need, dare, used to, ought to)
3. Semi-auxiliaries
(to be able to, to be about to, to be bound to ...)
4. Modal idioms
(had, better, would rather, have to, be to)

34
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs

1. Central modal auxiliary verbs

• Tense
• Present He may do it today.
• Future He may do it tomorrow.
• Past (+ their own meaning) (e.g. would)
• Periphrastic equivalents (PE) (opisné tvary)
• The same / different (limited) meaning
John may go out. = John is allowed to go out.
John may be right. – John is allowed to be right.

• Linguistic characteristics:

35
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs

• Linguistic characteristics:
1. No inflection
2. All take bare infinitive (present, past)
3. Function as operators
4. Only one MA in a verb phrase (combine with PE)
5. Different forms in different phrases (must – had to)
6. May be followed by the perfect, continuous, passive +
combinations*1

36
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
*1 - different phrases

• MA + perfect You should have done it.

• MA + continuous John may be sleeping now.

• MA + passive It must be done.

• MA + perfect.+ cont. John must have been working.
• MA + perfect.+ pass. It should have been done.

37
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs

• Linguistic characteristics:
1. No inflection
2. All take bare infinitive (present, past infinitive)
3. Function as operators
4. Only one MA in a verb phrase (combine with PE)
5. Different forms in different phrases (must – had to)
6. May be followed by the perfect, continuous, passive +
combinations*1
7. Different meaning in negation *2

38
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
*2 - different meaning in negation

Negation – must
(All listed negative forms function also as negation of other MA)
– must not - it is forbidden
You mustn´t smoke in here!
– need not - it is not necessary
(don´t need to) We needn´t go there.
– don´t have to - no obligation
You don´t have to speak.

– can´t - it is impossible
It can´t be love.
- (it is forbidden
You can´t park here!)
– may not - it is not allowed
You may not go out.

39
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs

• Linguistic characteristics:
1. No inflection
2. All take bare infinitive (present, past infinitive)
3. Function as operators
4. Only one MA in a verb phrase (combine with PE)
5. Different forms in different phrases (must – had to)
6. May be followed by the perfect, continuous, passive +
combinations*1
7. Different meaning in negation *2
8. Different scope of negation *3

40
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
*3 - different scope of negation

Different scope of negation ambiguous meaning.

John may not come.

– John may not come. – He is not allowed to come. (de)
- It is impossible that he comes. (ep)
- (John is unlikely to come.) (ep)
– John may not come. – He is allowed not to come. (de)
- It is possible that he will not come.(ep)
- (John is likely not to come.)

41
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs

• Linguistic characteristics:
1. No inflection
2. All take bare infinitive (present, past infinitive)
3. Function as operators
4. Only one MA in a verb phrase (combine with PE)
5. Different forms in different phrases (must – had to)
6. May be followed by the perfect, continuous, passive +
combinations*1
7. Different meaning in negation *2
8. Different scope of negation *3
9. A lot of different meanings (deontic – epistemic) *4
10. Some N, Adj, Adv, V have similar meaning (maybe, possible ...

42
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
*4a - different meanings 1

Intrinsic (deontic) Extrinsic (epistemic)

•Ability •Possibility / probability
•Permission •Necessity
•Obligation •Certainty
_______________________ ____________________________
Can /could - ability
- permission
May / might - permission
Must **5 - obligation

43
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
**5 - must

• Must - obligation (internal) + official ban

Have to - obligation (external)
Have got to (gotta) - obligation (spoken, neutral, present)
+ other meanings:
I (have) got a book. - possession
I´ve got a letter. - receive
I´ve got it somewhere. - put
I´ve got you a book. - bring
I´ve got it! - understand
I´ve got you! - Gotcha!

... ...

• Negation of must (*2)

• Past tense – had to

44
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
*4a - different meanings 1

Intrinsic (deontic) Extrinsic (epistemic)

•Ability •Possibility / probability
•Permission •Necessity
•Obligation •Certainty
_______________________ ____________________________
Can /could - ability -- possibility
- permission
May / might - permission -- possibility
Must **5 - obligation -- necessity / certainty
Should - obligation (duty) -- certainty
Will / would – future (+ other m.) -- probability
It is Peter ( 100%)
Shall - offers / suggestions !!!
It will be Peter. (90% ...)
- formal (rules, legal English) It must be Peter.
- (directives – „you shall“) It may be Peter.
It could / might be Peter.
It should be Peter.
It can´t be Peter. (only negative)
(Compare to SL!) 45
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
*4b - different meanings 2
MA - past tense
Intrinsic (deontic) Extrinsic (epistemic)
He can speak English. He may be right.
He could speak English. He may have been right.
may - might might
could
must - had to must
will - would will have been
should - 0 would
should
(can´t)

= It is possible (...) that he was right.

(OK, but SL interference !!!)
46
 4. Modal (auxiliary) verbs
*4c - different meanings 3

Some sentences may have 2 or more meanings depending

on the context:

John may not come here again.

John is not allowed to come here again.(de)
John is allowed not to come here again.(de)
It is impossible that John comes again.(ep)
(John is unlikely to come here again.)
It is possible that John doesn´t come again. (ep)
(John is likely not to come here again.)

He should be in France now.

Jane must be very clever.
They will have done it.
He could not tell us the truth.

... more examples späť

47
English grammar: Verbs

5.
MARGINAL MA
SEMI-AUXILIARIES
MODAL IDIOMS

48
 5. Marginal modal auxiliaries

• Classification of MA:

1.Central
(can, may, must , will, shall, could might, would, should)
2. Marginal
(need, dare, used to, ought to)
3. Semi-auxiliaries
(to be able to, to be about to, to be bound to ...)
4. Modal idioms
(had, better, would rather, have to, be to)

49
 5. Marginal modal auxiliaries

2. Marginal modal auxiliaries

- used to
- dare
- need
- (ought to)
May function:
- as MA (operator, no inflection, bare infinitive)
- as full verbs (inflection, to infinitive)
- as blends

50
 5. Marginal modal auxiliaries

• Used to

– Only past tense - past habits, states (would)

I used to travel by bus when I was....
There used to be many trees here.
– Questions - did Did you use to go there? !!!
- 0 (formal) Used you to go there?

– Negation – didn´t use to most common!!!

- didn´t used to
- used not to ( formal, old)
– Other meanings/ phrases – to use, to be /get used to

When I was a student I used to use a dictionary but now I am not

used to using it anymore and I can´t even get used to it.
51
 5. Marginal modal auxiliaries

• Dare
– Functions as MA (operator, no inflection, bare infinitive)
• in negation I dare not do it. (daren´t)
• in interrogative s. Dare you do it?
– as a full verb
• in all sentences Do you dare to do it?
I don´t dare to do it.

more common !!!

– Blends I don´t dare_ do it.
– Fixed phrases : How dare you (do that)!
Don´t you dare (do it)!
I dare say (daresay) ...
(I dare you!)
52
 5. Marginal modal auxiliaries

• Need (functions like dare but no blends)

– Functions as MA (operator, no inflection, bare infinitive)
• in negation I need not do it. (needn´t)
• in interrogative s. Need you do it?
– as a full verb
• in all sentences I don´t need to do it.
Do you need to do it?

more common !!!

– Need not (don´t need to) We needn´t go there.

(negation of must = it is not necessary)
– Needn´t have (done it) ≠ didn´t need (to do it)
I needn´t have gone there. (but I did and wasted time) 
I didn´t need to go there. (and I didn´t, I could do...) 

53
 5. Marginal modal auxiliaries

• Ought to
= should
– MA + to infinitive
– Operator
Ought you to go there?
I ought not to go there.

54
 3.Semi-auxiliaries

to be able to, to be about to, to be going to, to be bound to,

to be due to, to be likely to, to be supposed to, to have to ...

• Phrases / idioms
• Combination (regular) of auxiliary and full verb
construction:
– first part = auxiliary V (to be, to have)
– second part = full V (to infinitive)

55
 4. Modal idioms

Had better You´d better study hard.

(= should, but stronger)

Would rather I´d rather you went home.
I´d rather go home.
Have got to I´ve got to study hard.

To be (due) to Who else is (due) to come?

späť

56
English grammar: Verbs

6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase:

(grammatical categories that can be identified in a verb phrase)

1. Time (future, present, past)

2. Tense (present, past ?)
3. Aspect (progressive, perfect)
4. Mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive)
5. Voice (active, passive)
6. Finiteness (finite, non-finite)

57
 6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase

TIME, TENSE, ASPECT

58
 6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase

Time
- Abstract from any language
- Expressed by verb phrases
???
(What is PRESENT?)

←––––––O–––––––→
past present future
??? NOW ???
(What is NOW?)

59
 6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase

Tense
• Linguistic terminology
- relates the events to speech time (location in time)
- grammatical category that is realized by verb inflection
- two tenses : present (-s), past (-ed1)
( future is expressed by various phrases, not by verb inflection)

• Pedagogical terminology
- any verb phrases that relate the events to speech time
- used in textbooks, teaching materials, etc.
(e.g. present continuous, future perfect passive....)

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 6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase

Aspect
- Progressive (continuous)
- Perfect
Gr. category that reflects the way in which the meaning of
the verb is viewed (by a speaker).

- Subjective – doesn´t refer to real time but psychological

- Temporal nature of the action (completion, duration)

I live in BA I am living in BA
_____________________________________________________________________________________

I have lived in BA I have been living in BA

(for two years, since 1990,....)

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 6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase

• Progressive (continuous) – meanings in any tenses:

– Action in progress He is walking.
– Duration We are having a lecture.
– Development, change (vs. fixed) The climate is changing.
– Temporary (vs. permanent) I´m working here.
She is being lazy.
– Repetition–(very) regular I´ve been drinking juice every morning for ...
– Irritation, annoyance She is always coming late.
– Atmosphere The sun is shining, birds are ...
– Politeness I´m hoping that you...
– (Emotions, emphasis ) I have been wanting to...
„They are having to wait for the hospital.“ (New Orleans 2005 )
„People are having to come to terms with a new landscape“
(NY 11.9.2001)

!!! SK: don´t overuse progressive tenses !!!

• Perfect – completed / uncompleted späť
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English grammar: Verbs

7. TENSES 1
(present, past)

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 7. Tenses 1

1. Present simple
2. Present progressive
3. Past simple
4. Past progressive
5. Present perfect
6. Present perfect progressive
7. Past perfect
8. Past perfect progressive
• (Future tenses – 8. Tenses 2)

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 7. Tenses 1

1. Present simple
1. Present states I like coffee. I know him. I live in BA.
2. Habits, regular happenings (usually, often, always, every...)
I get up at 6 a.m.
3. Universal statements, facts (timeless)
Dogs have 4 legs.
(4.) For the past
- narrative (historic, dramatic effect)
A man goes into a pub and asks for a beer ...
- with reporting verbs John tells me that..., I hear, see, ...
(5.) For the future
- „calendar, diary, timetable ...“ future
My birthday is on..., The bus leaves at...
- after time and conditional conjunctions
When I come home...., If you ask me... 65
 7. Tenses 1

2. Present progressive
(see: 6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase“ – Aspect, p.6)

1. Action in progress (right now) I am listening to you.

2. Duration (right now) We are having a lecture.

3. Development, change (vs. fixed) My hair is getting grey.

4. Temporary (vs. permanent) I am working at the university.

5. Repetition – (very) regular The child is jumping.

6. Irritation, annoyance She is always coming late.

7. Atmosphere The sun is shining, birds are singing, ...

8. Politeness I´m hoping that you... (vs. I hope that...)

9. (Emotions, emphasis) They are having to wait for the hospital.

10. Event around present (wider present) I am knitting a new pullover.

(11.) For the future (arranged) We are having a party on Sunday.

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 7. Tenses 1

3. Past simple
1. Events in the past (at a definite time and finished in the past)
(yesterday, last week, ...)
I washed my car yesterday.
2. States in the past I liked reading novels when I was young.
3. Habits in the past (= used to / would)
(when I was..., at that time, in 1995,...)
I went to this school (used to go / would go).
4. Fixed phrases: I wish I were you. It´s time we went home.
(past subjunctive) I´d rather you went home.
(5.) Backshift of tenses (indirect speech)
He said he was ill.
(6.) Conditional clauses (II. conditional)
If I had time enough, I would read ...
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 7. Tenses 1

4. Past progressive – 1.
1.* Activity in progress at one moment in the past
(when the phone rang, yesterday at 5 o´clock, ...)
When she came home, I was watching TV.
2.** Activity in progress within a time interval
(yesterday from 5 to 6 pm, the whole day, ...)
CSI: What were you doing from 5 to 6 last night? I was sleeping.
But: What did you do at the weekend? I read, slept, watched TV ...
!!! SL: Don´t overuse past progressive tense !!!
3.***Two activities in progress at the same time in the past
(while, when, and, ...)
While she was washing up I was watching TV.
4. Activity that has duration and is not completed
I was reading a book last night./I read a book...
5. Polite phrases I was hoping you...., I was wondering if you...
+ other meanings of progressive aspect
(see: 6. Contrast expressed in a verb phrase – Aspect, p.6)

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 7. Tenses 1
4. Past progressive - 2

1. * Present

2. ** Present

3. *** Present

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 7. Tenses 1

5. Present perfect
1. Present results (consequences) of a past activity
(already, not yet ...) I have prepared lunch for you.
Is John still here? He´s gone home.
2. Past experience (with present importance)
(ever, never, twice, often ...) I have never been to London.
3. Present states lasting from the past (unfinished)
(for, since) I have known him for two years.
J.K.Rowling has written .... /Ch. Dickens wrote ...
4. In sentences with an adverbial including the present moment
(today, this week, so far, recently ... +just = immediate past)
I haven´t seen him today / recently ...
He has just arrived.
5. Fixed phrases This is the first / second time I´ve met John.
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 7. Tenses 1

6. Present perfect progressive- 1

1.* Activity that started in the past - up to now

I´ve been listening to you for 35 minutes.
2.** - ditto + will continue
He´s been studying English for 4 years.
3.*** - ditto, finished but still there is a consequence
It´s been raining all night.
(It´s not any more but everything is wet.)
4.**** Events occurring repeatedly up to present
I´ve been drinking juice in the morning for 2 years.

+ other meanings of progressive aspect

(see: 6 Contrast expressed in a verb phrase – Aspect, p.6)
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 7. Tenses 1
6. Present perfect progressive- 2
Present
1.*

2. **

3.***

4.****

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 7. Tenses 1

7. Past perfect

1. Refers to activities before some other activity

in the past
(when, and ..., before ? after ? – redundancy?)
He had graduated and left for America.
When he had graduated he left for America
After he had graduated he left for America.
Before he left for America he had graduated.
(2.) Backshift of tenses (indirect speech)
John said he had written the assignment.
(3.) Conditional clauses (III. conditional)
If I had known about the meeting, I would have come.

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 7. Tenses 1

8. Past perfect progressive

1. Events that started and continued up to some moment

in the past
Before I went to America, I had been studying English for 3 years.
(I went to America. I had been studying English for 3 years.)

Present

(2.) Backshift of tenses (indirect speech)

John said he had been working here for a year.
(John: „I´ve been working here for a year.“) späť

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English grammar: Verbs

8. TENSES 2
(future)

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 8. Tenses 2

Future tenses
(Phrases expressing future time)
1. Will
2. To be going to
3. Present progressive
4. Present simple
5. Future progressive
6. Future perfect
7. Future perfect progressive
8. „near future“ – (to be about to, ...)
9. To be (due) to
(10.) Some verbs
(11.) Future time in the past
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 8. Tenses 2

1. Will

1. Prediction (subjective)
You will pass the exam. She will be a good teacher.
2. Spontaneous decision
You don´t understand? I´ll explain it to you.
Wait! I´ll help you.
3. Facts in the future
He will be 18 in June.
Everybody will die.

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 8. Tenses 2

2. To be going to

1. Plans, intentions
I am going to buy a new car.

2. Prediction based on evidence or fact (objective)

Look at the clouds! It is going to rain.
Look at Mary! She is going to have a baby.
Doctor: „This is going to hurt.“

(SL: It´s not near future !!!)

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 8. Tenses 2

3. Present progressive

1. Arrangements already made (arranged future)

I´m seeing John tomorrow.
Where is Mary? She´s coming. (She phoned me.)
2. Timetable with transitional verbs + time adverbial
(to arrive, leave, go, land...)
The bus is leaving at 5pm. / The bus leaves at 5pm.
____________________
Tell the difference:
In July I will get married.
In July I am going to get married.
In July I am getting married.
(Translate into/compare to SL!)
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 8. Tenses 2

4. Present simple

1. Fixed events in the future (diary, calendar, schedule… future)

The meeting is tomorrow at 3pm.
My birthday is next Monday.
My bus leaves / is leaving at noon.

2. After time and conditional conjunctions

When I see him, I´ll tell you.
If I pass the exam, I´ll be happy.

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 8. Tenses 2

5.Future progressive

1. Action in progress at some moment in the future.

Tonight at 5 o´clock I´ll be watching TV.

2. Action in progress within a time interval in the future.

Tonight from 5 to 6 I´ll be watching TV.

3. Two actions in progress at the same time in the future.

While you are watching TV, I´ll be washing up.

4. Inevitable event, for sure, promise (polite)

I´ll be seeing you next week.

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 8. Tenses 2
6. Future perfect

1. Action completed by a specific time in the future

By the time you arrive, I´ll have done my homework.

7. Future perfect progressive

1. Action in progress by a specific time in the future.

By the time I go to NY, I´ll have been learning EL for 3 years.

Present

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 8. Tenses 2

8. „near future“
1. To be (just) about to
Look at her! She is about to open the door.
2. To be on the point of (verge of, brink of)
She was on the point of telling the truth when he came.
She is on the verge of tears (break down ...).
..... on the brink of extinction

9. To be (due) to
1. Future requirements, duty ...
Who else is (due) to come?

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 8. Tenses 2

(10.) These may have a future meaning :

• Some modal verbs – can, may, must
You may do it tomorrow.
• Some semi-auxiliaries – be sure to, be likely to, ...
John is likely to come. (tomorrow)
• Some full verbs – hope, intend, plan...
I hope you come. (tomorrow)

(11.) Future time in the past

• All the phrases can be used also in the past tense
(in indirect speech, narration ...)
She was going to...., She said that John would be....
Jane was about to ... späť

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English grammar: Verbs

9. VOICE

85
 9. Voice

- Active voice
- Passive voice

Passive voice
Linguistic characteristics:
1. at the clause level: O S John wrote a book.

A book was written

(... by) ... (by John.)

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 9. Voice

Linguistic characteristics:

2. Only transitive verbs (SVO)

John wrote a letter.

3. Ditransitive verbs (SVOiOd) – 2 passive forms

A teacher gave Mary a book.
A book was given to Mary (by a teacher).
Mary was given a book.
(give, send, offer, show, tell ...)

4. Some stative verbs – no passive

(have, lack, hold, contain, suit, cost ...)

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 9. Voice

Linguistic characteristics:
5. To be + ed2, (to get - informal, personal responsibility, process)
The thief was caught.
The thief got caught.
John was married / got married.

- fixed phrases (get married, get dressed...)

6. Difference:
- statal passive (Adj) His car was repaired. (SVC)

- dynamic passive His car was repaired every week. (SVA)

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 9. Voice

Linguistic characteristics:
7. „It“ construction, (personal construction)
- with reporting verbs + a clause
They believe that Peter is right.
It is believed that Peter is right
Peter is believed to be right.
(believe, think, suppose, recommend, say, tell....)
- tell / say
Mary was told... / Mary was said...
Mary was told to go home.
Mary was said to be the best student.

8. Prepositions
The doctor was sent for.
John was talked about.
Mary was cared for.
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 9. Voice

Uses of the passive:

 In English more common than in Slovak
 Depends on the context:
- Stress on the process, Od (not S) My car was stolen.
- Theme – rheme Mary was given a book.
A book was given to Mary.
- Neutral context – active voice is more common
 In formal, written, scientific, technical, impersonal language
 When the agent is
- Not known My bike was stolen.
- Not relevant The building was refurbished.
- Obvious The burglar was arrested.

 All verb phrases (also progressive !!!)

My car is being repaired.
My car has been repaired three times since ...
The rules will be explained before the competition.
späť
90
English grammar: Verbs

10. MOOD

91
 10. Mood

1. Indicative
2. Imperative
3. Subjunctive

Subjunctive mood
(podmieňovací spôsob)

A. present subjunctvive (“be“)

1. mandative
2. formulaic
B. Past subjunctive (“were“)

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 10. Mood

A. present subjunctive (“be“ = base form of a verb)

1. mandative
The rule demands that John be dropped from the school.
- in “that“ clauses (aby, že)
- after verbs introducing a clause (demand, require, insist, suggest, prefer...)
- more in formal style, AE
- can be replaced by to infinitive or should + infinitive
The committee recommend that he resign. (AE)
he resigns. (BE)
he should resign.
(him to resign.)
- negative - “not be“
The committee recommend that he not resign (should not resign).

2. formulaic ...
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 10. Mood

A. present subjunctive (“be“ = base form of a verb)

2. formulaic – in fixed expressions
Long live the king!
God save the queen!
So be it!
Come what may!
Be that as it may!
Heaven forbid!
.....

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 10. Mood

B. Past subjunctive (“were“ = past tense of a verb)

(was = less formal)
- in conditional and concessive clauses I would come if I knew that.
- hypothetical or unreal meaning If I were you, I would ...
- after conditional conjunctions (if, if only, even if, as if, even though ... )
If only we knew him. He behaves as if he were my father.
- after phrases: wish, it´s time, I´d rather, suppose ...
I wish I were your sister.
It´s time we went home.
I´d rather you did it yourself.
Just suppose he were like you.
- can be sometimes replaced by to infinitive
It´s time we went home. – It´s time to go home.
It´s time for us to go home.
- Some fixed phrases
If I were you. As it were ... späť
95
English grammar

11. ADVERBS

96
 11. Adverbs

1. Morphological forms
• Adverb phrase
• comparison
2. Syntactic functions
3. Semantic functions

97
 11. Adverbs

1. Morphological forms
A.
 Simple Adv. there, down, out, now, just ...
 Compound Adv. somehow, somewhere, therefore, thereafter ...
 Derivational Adv. (suffixes)
-ly (Adj +ly) easily, happily, badly, quickly ...
But:
1. Adj (-ly) friendly, lonely, lively ...
2. Adj=Adv (-ly) kindly, daily, weekly, early ...
(0) fast, far ...
3. Adj=Adv (0), hard – hard, hardly; late, high, near ...
(+ ly) = Adv with different meaning
4. Adv - both forms (0 or –ly) the same meaning
deep - deep=deeply, loud ...
-wise clockwise, otherwise ...
-ward(s) toward(s), northwards ...
-ways sideways, always ...
-fashion (-style) John wears his boots in bed, cowboy fashion.
They organized the event perfectly, German fashion.
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 11. Adverbs

1. Morphological forms
B.
Adverb phrase extremely (quite ...) hard
intensifier Adv (head)
(adverb of degree)
(modifier)
C.
Comparison of adverbs
- inflectional (-er, -est) faster, louder, deeper ...
- periphrastic. eq. (more, most) more easily ...
But: -ly Adj a kindlier girl ...
-ly Adv more kindly ...
- (intensifiers +) much more deeply, very much better
somewhat late, a lot more ..., a good/ great deal ...
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 11. Adverbs

2. Syntactic functions
1. Adverbials
• Conjuncts (connect a clause to the previous context)
so, therefore, in addition, however, furthermore ...
• Disjuncts (introduce personal opinion ...)
in my opinion, as far as I know, frankly, fortunately ...
• Subjuncts (less important in a clause)
just, still, already, please, yet ...
• Adjuncts today, here, quickly ...

disjuncts

conjuncts CLAUSE adjuncts

subjuncts
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 11. Adverbs

2. Syntactic functions
2. Intensifiers id AdjP, AdvP very early, quite hard, rather late

3. Premodifiers in NP quite a party, rather fun, such a fool,

nearly everybody, the downstairs room

4. Postmodifiers in NP the journey home, trip abroad, way ahead

meeting tomorrow,
5. Prepositional complements
from abroad, until recently, over there,
till now, for ever, since recently,

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 11. Adverbs

3. Semantic functions
• Time
– Position She arrived yesterday.
– Duration I have long believed that ...
– Frequency She very often comes home.

• Place (space)
– Position They are here.
– Direction She went downstairs.

• Manner She did her homework hurriedly.

• ... späť

102