MEG-04 Aspects of Language 

Assignment July 2019 and January 2020

Note: Attempt all questions. All questions carry equal marks.

Max. Marks: 100

1. Discuss the relationship between language and our perception of reality in terms of
linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.

2. Write short notes on any four of the following, giving examples as far as possible:

i) Changes in the meaning of words from Old to Modern English.

ii) Langue and Parole

iii) Problems in defining a speech community

iv) Code mixing and code switching

v) Status versus Corpus planning

vi) Monism and Dualism

3. What is Theta theory? Which parts of grammar does it affect? Discuss with examples of
your own.

4. Discuss in detail four different approaches of looking at language and society (Unit 1,
Block 6). Highlight the differences between all these approaches.

5. Historically discuss the rise of American English and its chief characteristics.
 9958947060 9958947060
ASSIGNMENT SOLUTION GUIDE (2019-2020)

MEG-04: Aspects of Language

Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions
given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private

M
Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance of the student to get an idea of how he/she can answer
the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100% accuracy of these sample answers as these

O
are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample answers may be seen as the

60 .C
Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the assignment. As these
solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot
be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing

70 T
these Sample Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular
94 EC
Answer and for up-to-date and exact information, data and solution. Student should must read and refer
the official study material provided by the university.
58 OJ
Q1. Discuss the relationship between language and our perception of reality in terms of linguistic
relativity and linguistic determinism.
Ans. Linguistic determinism is the idea that language and its structures limit and determine human
99 R

knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception. The
term implies that people who speak different languages as their mother tongues have different thought
P

processes.
Linguistic determinism is the strong form of linguistic relativity (popularly known as the Sapir–Whorf
U

hypothesis), which argues that individuals experience the world based on the structure of the language
they habitually use.
O

The hypothesis of linguistic relativity, part of relativism, also known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
or Whorfianism is a principle claiming that the structure of a language affects its speakers' world
N

view or cognition, and thus people's perceptions are relative to their spoken language. During World War
II this claimed principle was used to advance nationalistic views by Nazi Germany, claiming their
IG

intellectual superiority over others[1], but has been reexamined by scholars since the late 1980s and on,
aiming to avoid the context of racism, nationalism, or a hierarchy of intellectual capabilities which had
previously surrounded the theory.
The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis, refers to the proposal that
the particular language one speaks influences the way one thinks about reality. Linguistic relativity stands
in close relation to semiotic-level concerns with the general relation of language and thought, and to
discourse-level concerns with how patterns of language use in cultural context can affect thought.
Linguistic relativity is distinguished both from simple linguistic diversity and from strict linguistic
determinism. The long history of the hypothesis is sketched with an emphasis on the hierarchical
formulations characteristic of most early efforts. This is followed by a description of the work of Sapir and

1
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

Whorf which departs markedly from this earlier tradition and has been influential in the contemporary
period, hence the association of their names with the issue. Whorf's basic argument about analogical
influences is outlined in some detail. Despite widespread interest, quality empirical research has been in
short supply. Recent efforts to remedy this are described. The research is divided into structure-centered,
domain-centered, and behavior-centered types, depending on their manner of approaching the problem.

M
The contemporary period has seen a rapid improvement in the quality of some of these efforts. Current
trends likely to characterize future research are briefly characterized.

O
Q2.Write short notes on any four of the following, giving examples as far as possible:

60 .C
(i) Changes in the Meaning of Words From Old to Modern English.
Ans. Examination of Old English words along with their modern meanings can give you a glimpse of
how languages develop through time. The first form of English as a language is termed Old English and

70 T
came into being during the 5th century.
94 EC
Modern Meanings of Old English Words: Many common words and verbs can be found in Old English
that hold the same meaning today. For example, the following words all show roots in Old English:
• Strong
• Water
58 OJ
• Be
• Beam
By reviewing literature written in the period that Old English was used you can see the many Old English
99 R

words that are very similar to words found in modern English. For example:
• Eald - means old
P

• Brodor - means brother

• Hus - means house
U

• Nett - means net

• Riht - means right
O

It can be difficult to determine the modern meaning of some Old English words because there are often
multiple words which have similar meanings. For example, three descriptions of females are:
N

• Widuwe - stands for widow

IG

• Wif - means wife

• Wifmann - the term for woman
Influence of Other Languages on Old English
Examination of Old English and modern English seems to indicate that many of the words we use today
find their roots in the vocabulary of Old English. Some estimates claim that about half of the words used
today have their roots in Old English. This should not be that surprising since English has its roots in
the Germanic Language.
Many of the Old English words also came from influence of the Romans and Greeks. These words were
borrowed by the Germanic conquerors and incorporated into Old English. For example, the following
words were adapted from the Romans, Greeks and from Latin:

2
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

• Apostle - came from apostol

• Chalk - came from cealc
• Wine - came from win
• Monk - came from munuc
While the spelling is different, the meanings all follow the original words and correspond to the modern

M
meanings.
Making Up New Words: As the need arose for new words for things that the Germanic conquerors were

O
unfamiliar with, they would make up words rather than take Germanic words as descriptors.
Two examples of this are the words for astronomy and arithmetic. The invaders made up the words based

60 .C
on the root word "craeft" which meant an art or science.
• Astronomy became star-craft or tungolcraeft

70 T
• Arithmetic became number craft or rimcraeftS
Now you know some old English words, their meanings and have a better understanding of the sources of
our language.94 EC
Three Periods of English Language: English is often broken into three separate and distinct periods:
• Old English
• Middle English
58 OJ
• Modern English
Old English: Prior to the beginnings of English, the inhabitants of Great Britain spoke primarily Celtic
languages. During the later part of the 5th century, three tribes invaded England from Western Germany
99 R

and Denmark. These tribes spoke a similar language that, over the years, developed into Old English. Old
English survived until the Norman invasion in 1066 by William the Conqueror. Following the invasion
P

and conquest, the English language entered the period of Middle English.
U

Middle English: The invaders from the northern regions of France brought a form of French with them.
The new language became the official language of the government, trade and the ruling class.
O

The division of the classes began to include linguistics, with the upper or noble classes speaking French,
while the lower classes spoke Middle English. This continued until the 14th century when English once
N

more became the common language.

Middle English changed considerably over the centuries to include a number of French words in the
IG

vocabulary.
Modern English: Beginning in the 15th century, the transition from Middle English to Modern English
began. Much of the transition was due to the expansion of the British Empire throughout the world and to
the development of printing.
The printing press and increase in publishing of books drove the standardization of the language. Spelling
and grammar was formalized due to the publication of various literary works and pamphlets.
Influence of Old English: Although English grows out of the Germanic languages group, American
English also incorporated words and meanings from both the Spanish and the French. These influences
occurred during the colonization of America from the Spanish explorers and settlements and from the
large number of French living in Louisiana.

3
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

(ii) Langue and Parole

Ans. The foundational principles of structural functional linguistics were based on the lecture notes of
thegreat Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure published posthumously as Course de Linguistique
Generate (CLG). These principles entered into the structuralist model of linguistics and provided a turning
point in the history of linguistic. Making distinctions between the linguistic system and its actual

M
manifestations, we arrive at the crucial opposition between langue and parole. Langue is the system or
structure of a language whereas parole is the activity of speaking the language or actual speech. According

O
to Saussure, within the whole field of linguistic activity (langage), we should distinguish between the
language system and speaking or writing the language (parole). The three way may be understood as

60 .C
following:
Languge – As the general capacity that distinguishes man from the animals.
Langue –As language structure which consists of vocabulary, principles of construction, idioms, rules of

70 T
pronunciation, etc.
94 EC
Parole - As language, both speech or writing used in context.
For Saussure, langue is something that is at once social and constraining: “it is both a social product of the
faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to
permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.
58 OJ
While the former means that it is the possession of the community of speakers, the latter suggests that it is
something fixed. Parole, on the other hand, is the realm of freedom : “ it is an individual act…willful and
intellectual”. Langue- parole distinction has formed a basis for all later structuralist model of linguistics.
99 R

(iii) Problems in Defining a Speech Community

Ans. A speech community is a group of people who share a set of linguistic norms and expectations
P

regarding the use of language. It’s a concept mostly associated with sociolinguistics and anthropological
linguistics.
U

Exactly how to define speech community is debated in the literature. Definitions of speech community
tend to involve varying degrees of emphasis on the following:
O

Shared community membership

Shared linguistic communication
N

A typical speech community can be small town, but sociolinguists such as William Labov claim that a
large metropolitan areas, for example New York City, can also be considered one single speech
IG

community.
Early definitions have tended to see speech communities as bounded and localized groups of people who
live together and come to share the same linguistic norms because they belong to the same local
community. It has also been assumed that within a community a homogenous set of norms should exist.
These assumptions have been challenged by later scholarship that has demonstrated that individuals
generally participate in various speech communities simultaneously and at different times in their lives.
Each speech community has different norms that they tend to share only partially. Communities maybe de
localized and unbounded rather than local, and they often comprise different speech norms. With the
recognition of the fact that speakers actively use their language to construct and manipulate social
identities by signaling membership in particular speech communities, the idea of the bounded speech

4
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

community with homogenous speech norms has become large abandoned for a model based on the speech
community a fluid community of practice.
(iv) Code Mixing and Code Switching
Ans. Code in sociolinguistics simply refers to a language or a language variety. Both Code Mixing and
Code Switching are in one way or another coming together of two or more languages or codes. Unlike

M
Pidgins and Creoles, these are milder instances of language contact situation. By simple definition, Code
Mixing is mixing of mostly words, but also phrases, clauses or even complete sentences of two languages

O
or varieties. Code Switching is nothing but switching from one language to another to create a special
effect. Note the addition of the phrase “special effect” in the definition of the latter. The key Difference

60 .C
between Code Mixing and Code Switching is indeed that Code Switching has a special, social pragmatic
consequence while Code Mixing does not. Let us now try to understand Difference between Code Mixing
and Code Switching by looking at some example scenarios. While speaking Hindi, many people use the

70 T
word “teacher” instead of the word adhyapak. This is because we use it less frequently. In fact, it is quite

pure Hindi.
94 EC
unnatural to say it like that. Pure Hindi is spoken rarely these days. Many a times, it is humorous to speak

In linguistics, code-switching or language alternation occurs when a speaker alternates between two or
more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation. Multi-linguals, speakers of
58 OJ
more than one language, sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other.
Thus, code-switching is the use of more than one linguistic variety in a manner consistent with
the syntax and phonology of each variety.
99 R

(v) Status Versus Corpus Planning

Ans. Though a distinction is often made between status planning and corpus planning, in fact corpus
P

planning may also be viewed as a collection of decisions about the status of individual elements of the
corpus of the language: this pronunciation is preferred over that; this spelling is correct and that is not; this
U

plural-marker or past-tense form is preferred over that; this syntactic construction is valorized and that is
``stigmatized". When all these status decisions have been made, the corpus has been “standardized”. It
O

may then be disseminated through printing (the Bible, the Quran), through its use in royal or other
administrative edicts (Charlemagne's grandsons' Strasbourg Oaths, the edicts of Asoka) or nowadays, as
N

the form of language taught in schools (Malaysia, Norway). The set of decisions may sometimes be
summarized in the form of a (prescriptive) grammar. As Garvin (1964) points out, decisions about
IG

standardization may get made, and perhaps even published, but dissemination of the results may fail; i.e.
the standard may fail to be implemented, and implementation may in fact be the Achilles heel of most
language planning. Garvin's requirement that there be flexible stability means that there should be some
stability, usually through printing of a dictionary, spelling book, or reference grammar. But it must also be
flexible, allowing for eventual revisions, addition of vocabulary, and adaptation to more modern
technology. Garvin also posited four functions of a standard language:
1. The unifying, i.e. the ability to unite several dialect areas into a single standard-language
community; this function is largely symbolic, since it renders subjective value to notions of what
kind of linguistic community the speakers inhabit. For Tamil, this is in general not a problem,
since SST is accepted and spoken widely in Malaysia and Singapore as well as in Tamil Nadu.

5
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

2. The separatist, whose function is to set the group off from others, and establish boundaries; again,
this is largely symbolic. Since Tamil is already recognized as a separate literary language, separate
from its neighbors Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam, the problem of deciding what is or is not
Tamil does not arise.
3. The prestige function, i.e. the prestige of possessing a standard language; this function is also

M
largely symbolic, i.e. it has abstract meaning for the speakers, i.e. gives them pride in the ability of
their language to `hold its own' among other written languages.

O
Tamil already has a prestigious literary language; this is thus not an issue here; rather, capturing
some of the prestige for the spoken language is a problem.

60 .C
4. The frame-of-reference function, which Garvin refers to as providing objectivity; this is the ability
to serve as a frame of reference or an objective standard for correctness and for the perception and
evaluation of poetic speech.

70 T
As far as this affects Spoken Tamil, one needs an objective standard for what would or not be considered
94 EC
correct, but it is not necessary for poetry, since the older norms domina As is obvious, some of these apply
to the development of SST and some do not; since Tamil already has a written standard (LT) some of these
do not apply and will not unless SST captures domains currently dominated by LT. It must also be noted
that LT is not a unitary norm; there are many varieties of LT, some extremely conservative or archaicizing,
58 OJ
but since Tamil culture conceives of the language as being only one (rather than multiple stages or
varieties) taking refuge in the archaic style is often the strongest defense of the recalcitrant resisters to
modernization: they can so easily demonstrate how modern spoken forms are totally inappropriate for
99 R

something like religious usage.

(vi) Monism And Dualism
P

Ans. Dualism and Monism are both major approaches to the study of stylistics. These are 'content' and
'form'. The form of a work of literature or texts generally refers to its "architectonic" (Osoba, 2001). It is the
U

essential organizational structure or formal features. The content on the other hand, is more or less, the
subject matter, the idea, the worldview, or theme or more significantly, what Halliday (1970) refers to as the
O

'ideational content' of a text. In illustrating what the form is, the sonnet is a typical example. The Sonnet has
the following formal properties, a single stanza poem, composed of fourteen iambic pentameter lines
N

containing a rhyme scheme, which depends on whether the poem is the Italian or English sonnet. The formal
features distinguish the sonnet from other types of poems.
IG

Q3.What is theta theory? Which parts of grammar does it affect? Discuss with example of your own.
Ans. In generative grammar, a theta role is the formal device for representing syntactic argument structure
required syntactically by a particular verb. For example, the verb put requires three arguments. The formal
mechanism for implementing this requirement is based in theta roles. The verb put is said to assign three
theta roles. This is coded in a theta grid associated with the laxical entry for the verb. The correspondence
between the theta grid and the actual sentence is accomplished by means of a bijective filter on the
grammar known as the theta criterion.
The term theta role is often used interchangeably with the term thematic relations. The reason for this is
simple: theta roles typically reference thematic relations. In particular, theta roles are often referred to by

6
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

the almost prominent thematic relation in them. For example, a common theta role is the primary or
external argument. Typically, although not always, this theta role maps to a noun phrase which bears an
agent thematic relation. As such, the theta roles is called the agent theta role. This often leads to confusion
between the two nations. The two concepts, however, can be distinguished in a number of ways:
Thematic relations express the semantic relations that the entities denoted by the noun phrases bear

M
toward the action or state denoted by the verb. By contrast, theta roles are a syntactic notion about the
number, type and placement of obligatory arguments. For instance, in the sentence Fergus ate the kibble,

O
the fact that there are two arguments and Fergus must be capable of violation and doing the action and the
kibble must be something that can be eaten is a fact about theta roles. The actual semantic type of the

60 .C
argument is described by the thematic relation.
Not all theoretical approaches use theta roles. Theta roles are largely limited to the Chomskyan versions of
Generative grammar and Laxical functional grammar. Many other approaches such as functional grammar

70 T
refer to thematic relations directly without an intermediate in theta roles.
94 EC
Only arguments of the verb bear theta roles; optional adjunct modifiers – even if they are prepositional
phrases such as on Friday or noun phrases like yesterday – don’t take theta roles.

Q4. Discuss in detail four different approaches of looking at language and society (unit 1, block 6).
58 OJ
Highlight the differences between all these approaches.
Ans. Language is the primary method of human communication, but there are also other ways to
communicate without the use of language. When asked to define language we tend to think of a verbal
99 R

and written system in which certain sounds and symbols come together in a specific way to convey
meaning. Language in its most complex form is unique to humans, although some animals have been
P

found to have basic communication patterns.

The most well-known theory about language acquisition is the nativist theory, which suggests that we are
U

born with something in our genes that allows us to learn language. It proposes that there is a
theoretical language acquisition device (LAD) somewhere in our brains that is responsible for learning a
O

language the same way the hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining your body temperature. If
language was partly biological, it could explain why humans seem to have far more complicated
N

communication patterns than any other species .

Although no physical “language organ” exists in the brain, language acquisition can be hampered if
IG

certain parts of the brain are damaged during critical periods of language development. Damage to the left
hemisphere, for example can lead to aphasia - a disorder which causes problems with language, while
leaving intelligence untouched. For example, in Wernicke’s aphasia, patients with damage in a certain
region of the brain can no longer understand language. Although they can still form normal sentences,
neither what they say nor the words of others make any sense to them. Patients with Broca’s aphasia on
the other hand, have problems forming language but no trouble understanding what is said to them.
Studies have shown that young children with damage in similar regions of the brain can actually grow up
with only slightly impaired language ability - implying that the brain can develop new language pathways
that are good, but not quite as good as the original (Reilly, 1998).

7
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

Nativist theory also suggests that there is a universal grammar that is shared across differing languages,
because this grammar is part of our genetic make-up. The majority of world languages have verbs and
nouns, although this is not true in every instance, as well as similar ways to structure thoughts. Language
is thought of as having a finite amount of rules from which we can build an infinite amount of phrases,
and the core of these rules is somehow programmed into our brains. This is an ideal theory for explaining

M
how young children can learn such complicated ideas so quickly or why there are so many similarities in
language around the world. This theory is comparable to how we think of numbers; regardless of cultural

O
background, math always works the same way.
Another way to look at language learning is to treat it like learning a new skill. The learning theory of

60 .C
language acquisition suggests that children learn a language much like they learn to tie their shoes or how
to count; through repetition and reinforcement. When babies first learn to babble, parents and guardians
smile, coo, and hug them for this behavior. As they grow older, children are praised for speaking properly

70 T
and corrected when they misspeak. Thus, language arises from stimuli and stimuli response. While this is
94 EC
logical, it fails to explain how new words or phrases come about, since children are only parroting the
things they have heard from others.
The interactionist approach (sociocultural theory) combines ideas from sociology and biology to explain
how language is developed. According to this theory, children learn language out of a desire to
58 OJ
communicate with the world around them. Language emerges from, and is dependent upon, social
interaction. The Interactionist approach claims that if our language ability develops out of a desire to
communicate, then language is dependent upon whom we want to communicate with. This means the
99 R

environment you grow up in will heavily affect how well and how quickly you learn to talk. For example,
infants being raised by only their mother are more likely to learn the word “mama”, and less likely to
P

develop “dada”. Among the first words we learn are ways to demand attention or food. If you’ve ever
tried to learn a new language, you may recognize this theory’s influence. Language classes often teach
U

commonly used vocabulary and phrases first, and then focus on building conversations rather than simple
rote memorization. Even when we expand our vocabularies in our native language, we remember the
O

words we use the most.

It’s important to keep in mind that theories of language acquisition are just ideas created by researchers to
N

explain their observations. How accurate these theories are to the real world is debatable. Language
acquisition is a complicated process influenced by the genetics of an individual as well as the environment
IG

they live in.

Q5. Historically discuss the rise of American English and its chief characteristics.
Ans. American English, variety of the English language spoken in the United States. Although all
Americans do not speak the same way, their speech has enough in common that American English can be
recognized as a variety of English distinct from British English, Australian English, and other national
varieties. American English has grown up with the country. It began to diverge from British English
during its colonial beginnings and acquired regional differences and ethnic flavor during the settlement of
the continent. Today it influences other languages and other varieties of English because it is the medium

8
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

by which the attractions of American culture–its literature, motion pictures, and television programs–are
transmitted to the world.
Characteristics of American English: All speakers of English share a common linguistic system and a
basic set of words. But American English differs from British English, Australian English, and other
national varieties in many of its pronunciations, words, spellings, and grammatical constructions. Words

M
or phrases of American origin, and those used in America but not so much elsewhere, are called
Americanisms.

O
A. Pronunciation: In broad terms, Canadian and American speakers tend to sound like one another. They
also tend to sound different from a large group of English speakers who sound more British, such as those

60 .C
in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. For example, most Canadians and Americans pronounce
an r sound after the vowel in words like barn, car, and farther, while speakers from the British English
group do not. Also, some British English speakers drop h sounds at the beginning of words, so

70 T
that he and his are pronounced as if they were spelled ee and is. The English spoken in Australia, New
94 EC
Zealand, and South Africa sounds more like British English than American English does because these
varieties have had less time to diverge from British English. The process of separate development began
later in these countries than in North America. Although Canadians and Americans share many speech
habits, Canadian speakers of English sometimes tend more toward British English because of the closer
58 OJ
historical association of Britain with Canada. One prominent difference between American English and
Canadian English is the vowel sound in words like out and house. Americans often say that the Canadian
pronunciation sounds as if the words were spelled oot and hoose.
99 R

In some cases there are differences between American English and British English in the rhythm of words.
British speakers seem to leave out a syllable in words like secretary, as if it were spelled secretry, while
P

Americans keep all the syllables. The opposite is true of other words, such as specialty, which Americans
pronounce with three syllables (spe-cial-ty) while British speakers pronounce it with five syllables (spe-ci-al-
U

i-ty). Vowels and consonants may also have different pronunciations. British speakers pronounce zebra to
rhyme with Debra, while American speakers make zebra rhyme with Libra. Canadian and British speakers
O

pronounce the word schedule as if it began with an sh sound, while Americans pronounce it as if it began
with an sk sound.
N

B. Words: The most frequently used words are shared by speakers of different varieties of English. These
words include the most common nouns, the most common verbs, and most function words (such as
IG

pronouns, articles, and prepositions). The different varieties of English do, however, use different words
for many words that are slightly less common–for example, British crisps for American potato
chips, Australian billabong for American pond, and Canadian chesterfield for American sofa. It is even more
common for the same word to exist with different meanings in different varieties of English. Corn is a
general term in Britain, for which Americans use grain, while corn in American English is a specific kind of
grain. The word pond in British English usually refers to an artificial body of water, whereas ponds also
occur naturally in North America. British English chemist is the same as American English drugstore, and in
Canada people go to the druggist. Many of the words most easily recognized as American in origin are
associated with aspects of American popular culture, such as gangster or cowboy.

9
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam
 9958947060 9958947060

C. Spelling: American English spelling differs from British English spelling largely because of one man,
American lexicographer Noah Webster. In addition to his well-known An American Dictionary of the English
Language (1828), Webster published The American Spelling Book (1783, with many subsequent editions),
which became one of the most widely used schoolbooks in American history. Webster's books sought to
standardize spelling in the United States by promoting the use of an American language that intentionally

M
differed from British English. The development of a specifically American variety of English mirrored the
new country's separate political development. Webster's most successful changes were spellings

O
with or instead of our (honor, labor for the British honour, labour); with er instead of re (center, theater for the
British centre, theatre); with an s instead of a c (defense, license for the British defence, licence); with a

60 .C
final ck instead of que (check, mask for the British cheque, masque); and without a final k (traffic, public, now
also used in British English, for the older traffick, publick). Later spelling reform created a few other
differences, such as program for British programme. Canadian spelling varies between the British and

70 T
American forms, more British in eastern Canada and more American in western Canada.
94 EC
D. Grammar: The grammar of educated speakers of English differs little among national varieties. In the
speech of people with less access to education, grammatical variations in regional and social varieties of
American English are very common as normal, systematic occurrences (not as errors). One major
difference between British and American English is that the two attach different verb forms to nouns that
58 OJ
are grammatically singular but plural in sense. In American English, the team is..., or the government
is... (because they are viewed as single entities), but in British English, the team are..., or the government
are... (because teams and government are understood to consist of more than one person). Sometimes
99 R

function words are used differently: The British stay in hospital but Americans stay in the hospital.
P
U
O
N
IG

10
Read SHRI CHAKRADHAR PUBLICATION Help Book for IGNOU Exam