Topic 4 - Turbomachinery
Topic 4 - Turbomachinery
Topic 4 - Turbomachinery
Chapter 4.7 of of Steven G. Penoncello ‘Thermal Energy Systems Design and Analysis
Second Edition’ CRC Press 2
Overview
• The prefix turbo- is a Latin word meaning “spin” or “whirl,” appropriate
for rotating devices. Turbomachinery adds or removes energy to fluids:
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Overview
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Types of machines
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Types of machines
• Positive displacement machines forces the fluid along by volume
changes. A cavity opens, and the fluid is admitted through an inlet. The
cavity then closes, and the fluid is squeezed through an outlet. The
human heart is a positive displacement pump. Such machines deliver a
pulsating or periodic flow as the cavity volume opens, traps, and
squeezes the fluid. They develop immense pressures if the outlet is shut
down for any reason. Sturdy construction is required, and complete
shutoff would cause damage if pressure relief valves were not used.
• Dynamic machines simply add momentum to the fluid by means of fast-
moving blades or vanes or certain special designs. There is no closed
volume: The fluid increases momentum while moving through open
passages and then converts its high velocity to a pressure increase by
exiting into a diffuser section. Dynamic pumps generally provide a higher
flow rate and a much steadier discharge but are ineffective in handling
high-viscosity liquids.
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Types of machines
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Dynamic machines
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Dynamic machines
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Pumps
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Centrifugal pump
where hs is the pump head supplied and hf the losses. The net head H is a
primary output parameter for any turbomachine
The power delivered to the fluid simply equals the specific weight times the
discharge times the net head change
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Centrifugal pump
The efficiency is composed of three components:
• volumetric
• hydraulic
• mechanical
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Centrifugal pump
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Centrifugal pump
Performance charts are almost always plotted for constant shaft rotation
speed n (in r/min usually). The basic independent variable is taken to be
discharge Q (in gal/min usually for liquids and ft3/min for gases). The
dependent variables, or “output,” are taken to be head H (pressure rise or
Δp for gases), brake horsepower (bhp), and efficiency η.
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Centrifugal pump
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Centrifugal pump
The net positive-suction head (NPSH), is the head required at the pump
inlet to keep the liquid from cavitating or boiling. The pump inlet or suction
side is the low-pressure point where cavitation will first occur.
If cavitation does occur, there will be pump noise and vibration, pitting
damage to the impeller, and a sharp drop off in pump head and discharge.
In some liquids this deterioration starts before actual boiling, as dissolved
gases and light hydrocarbons are liberated.
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Centrifugal pump
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Example 1
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Example 1
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Comparison of pumps
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Selection of pumps
The ultimate test of a pump is its match with the operating system
characteristics. Physically, the system head must match the head produced
by the pump, and this intersection should occur in the region of best
efficiency.
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Parallel pumps
The two pumps in parallel need not be identical. Physically, their flow rates
will sum for the same head
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Series pumps
If a pump provides the right discharge but too little head, consider adding a
similar pump in series.
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Compressors
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Categorization
Compressors
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Categorization
Compressors may be classified under two main headings:
• Positive displacement
• Dynamic
Positive displacement compressors strap a volume of gas in an enclosed
space and increase the pressure by reducing the volume of the space
and can further be classified as
–Reciprocating compressors - including trunk, crosshead, labyrinth and
diaphragm types
–Rotary compressors - including vane, screw, liquid ring, and lobe rotor
types
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Categorization
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Categorization
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Compression ratio
• R-12 compressor
–169 psig high side, 2 psig low side
– psia = psig + 1 atm = psig + 14.7
–183.7 psia high side, 16.7 psia low side
–183.7 psia ÷16.7 psia = 11:1 compression ratio
• R-134a compressor
–184.6 psig high side, 0.7 in. Hg. vacuum low side
– 0.7 in. Hg. vacuum low side = -0.35psig
– psia = psig + 1 atm = psig + 14.7
–199.3 psia high side, 14.35 psia low side
–199.3 psia ÷14.35 psia = 13.89:1 compression ratio
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Staged Compression
Stage 1 Stage 2
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Reciprocating Compressors
• The workhorse of the refrigeration industry is the reciprocating
compressor
• Modern compressors are single-acting and may be single-cylinder or
multicylinder.
• In multicylinder compressors the cylinders are in V, W, radial, or in-line
arrangements.
• Following the trend of most rotative machinery, the operating speed of
compressors has generally increased in the past 20 years. From the slow
speeds of early compressors of about 2 or 3 rev/s, the speeds have
increased until compressors today operate at speeds as high as 60 rev/s.
• An inverter air conditioner is with variable speed compressor which
adjusts its speed & tonnage according to the cooling demand and load
on the air conditioner. A 1.5 ton inverter AC will work as 0.8 Ton AC if less
people are there in room or room is already cooled and the same AC will
work as 1.5 Ton AC if the room is packed with people and temperature
inside is high. 37
Reciprocating Compressors
• Crankshaft
–Transfers motor motion to the piston
–Creates the back and forth motion of the piston
• Connecting rods
–Connects the crankshaft to the pistons
• Pistons
–Slide up and down in the cylinder
–Used to compress and expand the refrigerant
• Refrigerant cylinder valves (suction)
–Durable, flexible steel
–Located on the bottom of the valve plate
–Open when refrigerant is introduced to the pump
• Refrigerant cylinder valves (discharge)
–Durable, flexible steel
–Open when refrigerant is discharged from the pump
–Located on the top of the valve plate 38
Reciprocating Compressors
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Welded Hermetic Reciprocating Compressors
• A compressor whose crankshaft extends through the compressor
housing so that a motor can be externally coupled to the shaft is an
open-type compressor.
• A seal must be used where the shaft comes through the compressor
housing to prevent refrigerant gas from leaking out or air from leaking
in. To avoid leakage at the seal, the motor and compressor are often
enclosed in the same housing.
• Improved techniques for insulating the motor electrically have allowed
motors to operate even though they are in contact with the refrigerant.
In many designs the cold suction gas is drawn across the motor to keep
the motor cool. Almost all small motor/compressor combinations used
in refrigerators, freezers, and residential air conditioners are of the
hermetic type. The only connections to the compressor housing are the
suction and discharge fittings and electric terminals.
• On larger hermetically sealed units the cylinder heads are usually
removable so that the valves and pistons can be serviced. This type of
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unit is called semi-hermetic.
Welded Hermetic Reciprocating Compressors
• Motor and compressor contained in a welded shell
• Cannot be field serviced
• Typically a “throw-away” compressor
• Considered to be a low-side component
• Cooled by suction gas from the evaporator
• Lubricated by the splash method
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Semi-Hermetic Reciprocating Compressors
• Bolted together, can be field serviced
• Housing is made of cast iron
• Has a horizontal crankshaft
• Smaller compressors are splash lubricated
• Larger compressors use pressure lubrication systems
• Often air cooled
• Piston heads are located at the top of the compressor
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Reciprocating Compressors
Four processes take place during the compression process
–Expansion (re-expansion)
–Suction (Intake)
–Compression
–Discharge
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Reciprocating Compressors
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Reciprocating Compressors
• Suction valve opens and gas is drawn into the cylinder (B-C).
• Suction valve closes and gas compression begins (C-D).
• Discharge valve opens and the compressed gas is discharged from the
cylinder (D-A).
• Discharge valve closes. Note that a gap is shown in this diagram between
zero volume and the volume at position B. This represents the clearance
volume in the cylinder. As the piston begins its return stroke, the gas which
remains in this space re-expands (A-B). 45
Reciprocating Compressors
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Reciprocating Compressors
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Reciprocating Compressors
Clearance Volumetric Efficiency: ηvc , (same as
Suction Volume Eff.) depends on the re-
expansion of residual gas trapped in clearance
volume (Vc )gas
𝑉3 − 𝑉1
ƞ𝑣𝑐 =
𝑉3 − 𝑉𝐶
• V3 is maximum volume of cylinder
• VC is the clearance volume
• V1 is the volume when suction (inlet ) valve
opens,
Thus :
• V3 –V1 ; Actual (real)suction volume
• V3 - VC : Apparent (ideal) suction volume
• Clearance volume eff. can also be expressed
in term of % clearance m
𝑉𝑐
𝑚= 49
𝑉3 − 𝑉𝐶
Reciprocating Compressors
ƞvc can expressed as function of m
𝑉1 ʋ𝑠𝑢𝑐
ƞ𝑣𝑐 =1−𝑚 −1 =1−𝑚 −1
𝑉𝐶 ʋ𝑑𝑖𝑠
Where
• VC is the clearance volume
• V1 is the volume when suction (inlet ) valve opens
• vsuc is the specific volume of vapor entering compressor
• Vdis is the specific volume of vapor after isentropic compression
𝑉1 ʋ𝑠𝑢𝑐
=
𝑉𝐶 ʋ𝑑𝑖𝑠
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Reciprocating Compressors
Clearance volumetric efficiency and mass flow rate of ideal compressor
(R-22, 4.5 % clearance, 50 L/s rate of displacement, and 35 °C condensing T)
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Reciprocating Compressors
Work of compression and power required by an ideal compressor
(R-22, 4.5 % clearance, 50 L/s rate of displacement, and 35 °C condensing
Temperature)
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Reciprocating Compressors
• Volumetric efficiency:
• Stage pressure ratio for minimum work: where Rp= overall pressure ratio, and N is the
number of stages and n is polytrophic constant
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Reciprocating Compressors
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Example 3
Catalog data for a six-cylinder R-22 compressor operating at 29 r/s
indicate a refrigerating capacity of 96.4 kW and a power
requirement of 28.9 kW at an evaporating temperature of 5°C and
condensing temperature of 50°C. The performance data are based
on 3°C liquid subcooling and 8°C superheating of the suction gas
entering the compressor. The cylinder bore is 67 mm and the piston
stroke is 57 mm. Compute
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Example 3
(a) the clearance volumetric efficiency if the clearance volume is 4.8 percent,
𝑉𝑠 ʋ𝑠𝑢𝑐
ƞ𝑣𝑐 = 1 − 𝑚 −1 =1−𝑚 −1
𝑉2 ʋ𝑑𝑖𝑠
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Rotary Compressors – Vane type
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Rotary Compressors – Screw type
• The male rotor with four lobes drives the female
rotor in a stationary housing.
• At the suction position a void is created into
which the inlet vapor flows.
• Just before the point where the interlobe space
leaves the inlet port, the entire length of the
cavity or gully is filled with gas.
• As the rotation continues, the trapped gas is
moved circumferentially around the housing.
• Further rotation results in meshing of the male
lobe with the female gully, decreasing the
volume in the cavity and compressing the gas.
• At a certain point into the compression process
the discharge port is uncovered and the
compressed gas is discharged by further
meshing of the lobe and the gully.
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Centrifugal Compressors
• The most common type of dynamic compressor in refrigeration is centrifugal
compressor while axial flow compressors are used in other applications.
• Centrifugal compressor has become the dominant type of compressor in
large installations.
• Centrifugal compressors serve refrigeration systems in the range of 200 to
10,000 kW of refrigerating capacity.
• Evaporating temperatures in multistage machines may extend down to the -
50 to -100°C range,
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Centrifugal Compressors
• The incoming fluid enters the eye of the spinning impeller and is
thrown by centrifugal force to the periphery of the impeller.
• Thus the blades of the impeller impart a high velocity to the gas and
also build up the pressure.
• Impellers in centrifugal compressors are equipped with backward-
curved blades.
• From the impeller the gas flows either into diffuser blades or into a
volute, where some of the kinetic energy is converted into pressure.
• The centrifugal compressor may be manufactured with only one
wheel if the pressure ratio is low, although the machines are
generally multistage.
• Centrifugal compressors operate with adiabatic compression
efficiencies of 70 to 80%.
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Centrifugal Compressors
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Centrifugal Compressors
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Axial Compressors
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Axial Compressors
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Axial Compressors
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Turbines
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Categorization
A turbine extracts energy from a fluid that possesses high head, but it is
fatuous to say a turbine is a pump run backward. There are two types,
reaction and impulse, the difference lying in the manner of head
conversion.
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Categorization
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Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine, the fluid fills the blade passages, and the head
change or pressure drop occurs within the impeller. Reaction designs are of
the radial-flow, mixed-flow, and axial-flow types and are essentially dynamic
devices designed to admit the high-energy fluid and extract its momentum.
Reaction turbines are low-head, high-flow devices. The first efficient
inward-flow turbine was built in 1849 by James B. Francis, a U.S. engineer,
and all radial- or mixed-flow designs are now called Francis turbines. At still
lower heads, a turbine can be designed more compactly with purely axial
flow and is termed a propeller turbine. The propeller may be either fixed
blade or adjustable (Kaplan type).
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Reaction Turbines
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Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine first converts the high head through a nozzle into a high-
velocity jet, which then strikes the blades at one position as they pass by.
The impeller passages are not fluid-filled, and the jet flow past the blades is
essentially at constant pressure. For high head and relatively low power not
only would a reaction turbine require too high a speed but also the high
pressure in the runner would require a massive casing thickness. The
impulse turbine of is ideal for this situation. A subtype are named Pelton
wheels, after Lester A. Pelton (1829–1908), produced the first efficient
design.
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Euler formula
The Euler turbomachine formulas also apply to energy-extracting machines
if we reverse the flow direction and reshape the blades. Application of the
angular momentum control volume theorem, yields an idealized formula
for the power P extracted by the runner
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Example 4
Consider the flow of air through a blade passage of an axial turbine rotor.
The air enters theoblade passage with an absolute velocity of V1= 400 m/s at an
angle of α = 20 .
The blade velocity is VB = 239 m/s.
Theo air leaves the blade passage with an absolute velocity of V2 at an angle of δ =
90 .
Assume no losses in the flow. The axial flow velocity remains constant. The
mass flow rate at the turbine inlet is 12 kg/s .
a) Sketch the velocity diagram (inlet and exit)