MODULE

in
CROP SCIENCE 41
(PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION)

Prepared by:

AGRIPINA R. ARADILLA
MA. STELLA M. PAULICAN
JEAN L. VALLESER
MA. JOVERLY M. ABELLO

College of Agriculture
Central Mindanao University
Musuan, Bukidnon

FIRST SEMESTER, SY 2020-2021

MODULE IN CROP SCIENCE 41 (Principles of Crop Production
First Semester, SY 2020-2021

MODULE 1 – NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE

Duration: 2 weeks (September 2 to September 16, 2020)

Introduction

Agriculture is synonymous to farming. It is an art, a science and a business that

involves the raising of crops and animals for the basic needs of man, including luxuries.
It is the mother of all industries and maintainer of human life.

Not only that, agriculture is the systematic raising of useful plants and livestock
under the management of man. It is a purposeful work through which the elements of
nature are harnessed to produce plants and animals to satisfy human needs and
without agriculture, civilization cannot be developed. It is engaged in he production of
plants and animals for food and fiber, the provision of agricultural services and the
processing, marketing and distribution of agricultural products.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, the students are expected to:

1. Describe the development of world and Philippine agriculture;
2. Familiarize the major crops of the Philippines and their geographic distributions;
3. categorize the types of seasons in the Philippines and identify the regions/
provinces per type; and
4. Analyze the problems, nature and features of Philippines agricultural systems.

Topics/Subtopics Covered

1.0 Agricultural Development

1.1 Origin, Domestication and History of Major Crops of the Philippines
1.2 Centers of Early Agriculture
1.3 Regions of the World where Major Crops were Domesticated
2.0 Stages in the Development of Philippine Agriculture
3.0 Some Data and Facts About Philippine Agriculture
4.0 Problems, Status and Prospects of Philippine Agriculture
5.0 Nature and Features of Agricultural Systems
6.0 Nature of Agriculture as a Field of Study
Engaging Activities:

The students shall:

1. Do self-pace reading and understanding of the lessons provided for the duration
stated in this module.
2. Perform activities and submit the required documents to the teacher at the end
lessons through email and/or courier (LBC, etc).

Activity 1.0

1. Perform an ocular inspection of common crop plants in your vicinity or

surroundings. In a matrix form, list them down, and give their specific
economic uses to man (20 pts).

2. List down five (5) current problems that farmers experienced as they raise
crops. Explain how these problems affect crop production (10 pts).

Due Date of output: 17 September 2020

Assessment

1. Make a reflection or summarize the lessons that you have studied, and state (in your own
words) what you learned (20 pts).

2. Identify the type of season of your region or province and enumerate at least 10 crops that
are dominant in the area (10 pts).

Due Date of output: 17 September 2020

3. Unit Test – This will be given on line (synchronous) which will be announced a week
before the examination will be administered.

Further Readings:

1. Why agriculture is important?

2. What is the current status of agriculture in the Philippines?
MODULE 1 – NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE

1.0 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The development of agriculture arose from man’s realization of the difference

between him and other forms of life.

1. Pastoral stage – This is characterized by food gathering in terms of

hunting and fishing and using randomly acquired weapons, man lived
on the gift of nature, gathering wild plants for their medicinal, cosmetic,
aphrodisiac properties as well as for their food value. For communities
near bodies of water, fishes are caught by hand.

2. Middle Stone Age (from 8,000 BC) – This is characterized by (a) use
of bow and arrow; (b) catching, drying an storage of fish, and (c) stored
seeds, nuts and fruits.

3. New Stone Age or Neolithic Age (between 6,000 – 7,000 BC)

 Discovery of the relation of seed to plant

 Domestication of plants and animals – most important intervention
man has ever made in the environment
 Growth of villages and the transition from food collection to
deliberate raising of crops. Villagers practice seed agriculture and
vegeculture

Seed agriculture – raising of cereals and legumes where seeds are sown and
en masse and harvested at the same time

Vegeculture – vegetatively propagated plants like taro, sweet potato, yam,

banana. Arrowroot, etc. and other annual crops

1.1 ORIGIN, DOMESTICATION AND HISTORY OF MAJOR CROPS OF THE WORLD

Middle East – believed to be where the earliest domestication of plants occurred and
these people were called Cushites

Cushites – remarkable race of people who experimented with plants as a source of

food, and also attempted to culture them.
- They are semi-nomadic, establishing communities on burned land, planting
gardens with stored seeds and domesticated on any suitable location
(Matheson, 1975). They were great seafarers and land travelers, hence
contributed to the spread of knowledge on crop domestication.
 Man’s diet is composed of three major components: carbohydrates,
proteins and vitamins, hence early man intuitively raised multitude of plants
particularly Graminae (cereals) and Leguminoseae (grain legumes) family.

The Americans - maize and soybeans

African - sorghum and beans
The Middle East - wheat, barley and beans
Asia - rice and soybeans

ORIGINS OF SOME MAJOR CROPS

1. Soybean – Leguminoseae family – sub family Papilionideae – originated in Asia

(China)

2. Sorghum – Graminae family – originated in North Africa (Abyssinia)

3. Corn – Graminae family tribe Maydeae – originated in Southern America (Mexico

through Latin America)

4. Rice – Graminae family – originated from India, species Oryza perennis;

rice species domesticated in Africa (Niger River in West Africa) is Oryza
glaberrima (Africa rice).

There are three sub-species of rice being recognized based on

geographical races of the crop: indica, japonica and javanica.

Origin and Domestication of Some Important Crops of the Philippines

Oil Crops
1. Peanut – Native to South America, introduced into Africa along with bananas;
forms a large part of the diet of the people
2. Coconut – belongs to sub family Cocoideae, with center of diversity in Northwest
South America; Nuts probably floated in ocean currents and germinated ashore
in new locations

Vegetable Crops
1. Beans, snap or green and lima beans – native to tropical America. Phaseolus
vulgaris – most widely grown beans and the world’s most important grain
legumes for consumption.
2. Eggplant – known as eggfruit, aubergine or guinea squash; native to South and
Eastern Asia but also grown in China; thought to be domesticate in India and
spread to the tropics.
3. Muskmelon – originated in Asia (Iran and India)
4. Okra – also called gumbo, gombo, gobo or lady’s finger; either Asian or African
origin
 5. Tomatoes – native to tropical Central and South America; progenitor was cherry
tomato in the wilderness of Peru-Ecuador
6. Asparagus – native to Southern Russia, but also found in Europe, England,
Poland and Mediterranean
7. Onion – domesticated in Asia (wild ancestors were unknown)

Cultivated Tropical Fruits

1. Bananas – originated in Southeast Asia, spreading to India, Africa and finally to
tropical America
2. Citrus – cultivated species in Southeast Asia, now cultivated extensively in the
sub-tropics with Mediterranean climate
3. Mango – originated in India-Bangladesh-Burma region
4. Pineapple – native to tropical regions of South America and was grown in the
new World for food, medicinal properties and for wine making
5. Papaya – probably originated in Central America

Cutflowers
1. Chrysanthemum – native to China, brought to Euro[e in 1789 by Capt. M.
Blanchard of Marseilles
2. Carnation – indigenous to the Mediterranean area and cultivated by man by over
2,000 years. Man’s improvement of Dianthus (greek word for divine flower)
began in the 16th century
3. Rose - native to the northern temperate zone. The earliest record of a rose is
thought to be of Damascene rose, a natural hybrid between Rosa gallica and
Rosa phoenicea.
4. Gladiolus – were recognized over 2,000 years growing in the field of Asia Minor
and were called as “corn lilies”
5. Easter Lily – Lilium longiflorum is a native of Japan and its center of origin is
Japan. Its local counterpart in the Philippines is Lilium philippinense.

1.2 CENTERS OF EARLY AGRICULTURE

1. Southwestern Asia (8,000-9,000 BC) – area is known as the Fertile Crescent

(Middle East) – often recognized as the Cradle of Civilization

2. Egypt – (before 4,500 BC) – farming on Nile river banks; production practices
such as land preparation, irrigation and pruning were introduced

3. Europe – (before 6,000 BC) – Greeks devoted to botany and aided in the
transition to scientific agriculture. The Romans adopted and improved Greek
agricultural practices like crop rotation, manure fertilization, weed control,
asexual propagation and use of greenhouses (specularia)

Roman times – ornamental horticulture developed considerably.

 4. Africa – coastal strip of Africa received the earliest crops by diffusion along the
Nile river

5. Southern Asia – first crop spread overland from Iraq and Iran in Sa about 3,000
BC. In Southern India and Cylon, irrigation reservoirs were constructed in 1,500
– 1,300 BC

6. Central Asia – wheat and barley farming pattern was established and spread to
Iran. Grapes, peaches, apricots and melons were raised

7. Eastern Asia – diffusion of SW Asian wheat complex by mainland diffusion.

Rootcrops like yams and taro, bananas, bamboo, sorghum, soybeans and rice
are native to the tropical Far East region. Agriculture flowed from China and
Thailand to Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.

Plowing in China probably started from the Han dynasty (202 BC to 220
AD). Horses were used in plowing (100 BC) after the invention of the horse
collar by the Chinese.

Japan adopted rice farming from China via Korea but northern Japan
remained as a hunting and fishing area. In the 12 th century, the Chinese
introduced tea to Japan.

1.3 REGIONS OF THE WORLD WHERE MAJOR CROPS WERE DOMESTICATED

North America – plum (grape), blueberry, cranberry, pecan, sunflower, tapery

bean

Meso America – maize (corn, tomato, sieva bean, scarlet runner bean, cotton, avocado,
papaya, cacao, cassava, sweet potato

Lowland South America – yam, pineapple, cassava, sweet potato, cotton

Highland South America – potato, peanut, lima bean, common bean, cotton

Europe – oats, sugarbeet, cabbage, grape, olive

Africa – African rice, sorghum, millet, yam, watermelon, cowpea, coffee, cotton,
sesame
Near East – wheat, barley, pea, lentil, chick pea, fig, date, flax, pear,
pomegranate,olive, grape, apple, plum

Central Asia – common millet, buckwheat, alfalfa, hemp, grape

China – soybean, cabbage, onion, peach, foxtail millet

Southeast Asia – oriental rice, banana, citrus, yam, mango, thin sugarcane, taro, tea

South Pacific – sugarcane, coconut, breadfruit

Australia – Macademia nut

India – pigeon pea, eggplant, cucumber, cotton, sesame

2.0 Stages in the Development of Philippine Agriculture

1. Pre-colonial period – Indo-Malayan migrants brought with them wet-rice

agriculture and carabao as source of manpower. It predominated near bodies of water.
Slash and burn or kaingin culture or non-plow farming predominated in other areas. It is
a shifting kind of agriculture; pattern of agriculture was subsistence. Main crops include
rice, gabi, yam,. Banana, millet, coconut, ginger, clover, cinnamon and nutmeg.

2. Colonial period – This period introduced a non-producing class for which

Filipinos produced surpluses leading to an increase in agricultural production. Plan
introduced include; mulberry, wheat, cucumber, cantaloupe, water melon, new varieties
of cereals, peas and other vegetables. The development of haciendas allowed for the
introduction of technological innovations in production and processing; e.g. steam or
hydraulic-powered sugar mills.

March 6, 1909 – UP College of Agriculture in Los Baños was founded.

3. Post-war period – This is characterized by the introduction of technological

improvements; use of modern farm inputs and farm mechanization in 1950; building up
of market for tractors and power tillers in 2960s; IRRI was established; introduction of
high yielding varieties; and development and expansion of international agricultural
trading especially for coconut and its by-products, tobacco, sugarcane, pineapple, etc.

3.0 Some Data and facts about Philippine Agriculture

The Philippines is a tropical country where most areas grow crops the whole year
round. It has 2 (previously) distinct seasons based on rainfall: wet (late part of April to
early part of October) and dry (late part of October to early part of April). According to
Fr. J.Corona (1920), there are 4 types of climate in the country. The four types of
climate are:

Type I. Two pronounced seasons, dry in winter and spring, wet in summer and
autumn. Maximum rain period is from June to September during the
prevalence of the southwest monsoon season. The dry season lasts from
three to six or seven months. This type of climate prevails in the Ilocos
Region, Western part of Mountain Province, western part of Nueva Ecija,
Central Luzon, Metro Manila, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Tarlac,
 Pampanga, Bulacan, Zambales, Occidental Mindoro, Southern parts of
Antique and Negros Occidental (Kintanar, 1984).

Type II. No dry season with very pronounced maximum rain period in winter. The
maximum monthly rainfall generally occurs in December and January. There is
not a single dry month in this type of climate. The regions belonging to this type
of climate are the northern part of Kalinga Apayao, the northwestern part of
Cagayan, western part of Quezon province, Pollilo Island, Bicol Region,
northeastern Samar, southern Leyte, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Agusan
del Norte and Misamis Occidental (Kintanar, 1984).

Type III. No very pronounced maximum rain period, with a short dry season
lasting only from one to three months. This type is intermediate between Type I
and II, although it resembles the first type more closely because it has a dry season.
The short dry season occurs either in winter or spring. The regions that have this
type of climate are the eastern part of Ilocos Norte, Kalinga Apayao, Cagayan,
Mountain Province, western part of Isabela, eastern part of Nueva Viscaya,
eastern parts of Laguna and Batangas, Occidental Mindoro, Romblon,
Marinduque, Aklan, Capiz, northern parts of Antique and Iloilo, Negros
Occidental, eastern part of Negros Oriental, Siquijor, Zamboanga del Sur,
Basilan, Lanao del Sur, Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, western part of Agusan del
Sur, Cotabato and eastern Maguindanao (Kintanar, 1984).

Type IV. Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year. This is
also intermediate between the first and second type but resembles the second more
closely since it has no dry season. Regions with this type of climate are the northern
Kalinga Apayao, easterna Cagayan, Isabela, Quezon province, western Bicol,
western Samar, Southeastern Masbate, northern Leyte, northern Cebu, Bohol,
Zamboanga, South Cotabato, Davao del Sur, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental, eastern
part of Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur (Kintanar 1984).

From the point of view of agriculture, Mindanao has the best climate
which is so uniform that it brings sufficient rainfall throughout the year.

The top three crops in the country are rice, corn and sugarcane. Field legumes
like mungbean, peanut and soybean are considered only secondary crops in terms of
economic importance. Worldwide, wheat, rice and corn are the top three major crops.

The primary crop which is rice has at least three types of culture: irrigated
lowland rice, rainfed lowland rice and rainfed upland rice. The Philippine
government was pushing for a nationwide hybrid rice production as one of the high
impact projects (HIPs) through the leadership of the then Secretary of Agriculture Luisito
P. Lorenzo. Examples of these hybrid rice are PSB Rc 72 H (mestizo) and Magilas
(from Monsanto). Such hybrids can potentially yield greater than 9 tons per hectare.
 Except for corn, the following major Philippine crops are under the rearch and
development responsibilities of certain institutions by the PhilRice (Philippine Rice
Research Institute), and indirectly, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),
sugarcane by the Philippine Sugar Research Institute Foundation Inc. (PhilSurIn),
coconut by the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA).

For corn, Isabela is the top corn-producing province in terms of production yield
and next is Bukidnon.

4.0 Problems, Status and Prospects of Philippine Agriculture

Problems in Philippine Agriculture

1. Physical – climate (typhoon, drought); soil (loss of top soil f\due to

erosion)

2. Biological – insect pests, weeds, disease pathogens, physiological

disorders and nutrient toxicities and genetic make-up of different crops

3. Socio-economic – family income (low farm income); community profile

(inadequate support services for optimum production)

4. Government support – inadequate incentives for efficient and effective

agricultural production; e.g. inadequate farm to market roads and absence
of post-harvest and irrigation facilities

There are about 80 million Filipinos (73.44 M in 2002) and the projected increase
in population in l995 to 2025 is 55%. The domestic food demand is also about 55%,
which may not be met if the current practices of crop production in the country will
continue.

Sustainable resource utilization and management is a major concern in

Philippine agriculture and land use conversion is another where, agricultural areas are
being converted for industrial uses, among others. An example of which is
CALABARZON (Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and Quezon provinces) which were
prime agricultural provinces before and were converted into industrial areas.

The country is not yet sufficient in rice and corn production, which are its staple
crops. The local demand is still largely subsidized by importation. The AFMA of l998
(Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act) is the banner program of the Philippine
Government to strengthen and to develop the agriculture industry of the country.

There are different views as to the values of GATT in ushering development for
the country. GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) which aims at promoting
agricultural trade by decreasing protectionism at national levels and increasing open
regional and world markets through reductions (or removal) of tariffs and subsidies and
thereby promoting freer trade among countries. In short, GATT is about trade
liberalization in the world Trade Organization in the world.

Biotechnology which has two categories: traditional and modern is another

highly debated issue. Modern biotechnology especially the use of GMOs (genetically
modified organisms) has been used in several developed countries since early 1990s
commercially. In 2002, about 58.7% million hectares were cultivated with GM crops
(genetically modified crops) in 16 countries lead by USA, Argentina, Canada, China and
South Africa.

Traditional biotechnology refers to the practices that have been long used as
cross-pollination, breeding, fermentation and others while modern biotechnology makes
use of genetic information found in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) to improve
materials used in food production, medicine, and others. Generally, biotechnology is the
use of living organisms (microorganisms, plants and animals), their parts or products to
make materials such as food, medicine, chemicals and others that are useful to man.

The Philippine government which is supporting the biotechnology campaign for

food sufficiency program of the government is certainly eyeing the potentials of
biotechnology, as well as considering responsibility and studying its risks. The field trial
for Bt corn varieties of the Monsanto Company had concluded and these may be
commercialized in two years time.

Hybrid rice varieties which make use of the cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)
system usher a lot of promise in the aim of food sufficiency program of the government.
Most recently, hybrid rice varietal development may be further revolutionalized by the
use of the thermo-sensitive genetic male sterility (TGMS) system.

5.0 The Nature and Features of Agricultural Systems

Agricultural systems in the Philippines are not sustainable. If not highly

dependent on on-farm resource inputs, these are being cultivated very poorly, i.e. poor
inputs and poor technological innovations or existing in marginal areas.

Agricultural systems in the Philippines are mostly monocropping in nature.

Multi-cropping in spite of its benefits, is still less popular because it is more labor
intensive. Crop rotation is seldom practiced although some rice farmers in rainfed
lowlands make use of legumes (e.g. mungbean) as rotation crop after rice.

Rice production in the country generally used inbred rice varieties (varieties
that were developed through self-pollination and selection). On the other hand, corn
production make use of hybrids (first generation offsprings of a cross between two
different individuals). OPVs (open pollinated varieties) and traditional farmers’ varieties
or landraces.
 Many agricultural systems practice conventional farming which is largely
dependent of inorganic fertilizer inputs and pesticides. An extreme case is the slash
and burn agriculture or kaingin which continues to threaten the forested areas of the
country.

6.0 The Nature of Agriculture as a Field of Study

Agriculture is simply the art and science of raising plants and animals and is
considered the basic and mother industry of most countries. Therefore, it has two
branches: crop production and animal production. Agriculture is a basic field where
scientific knowledge is needed, and an applied field where scientific principles, concepts
and theories are put into practice. However, one of the concerns or problems in
Philippine agriculture is the immense gap between scientific knowledge and its
application.

Crop production has two disciplines: agronomy (from the Greek words agros
which means field and nomos which means to manage) is the science which is
concerned with field crop production and management and horticulture (derived from
the Latin words hortus that means garden and colere which means to cultivate) is a
science that includes the study and cultivation of garden crops and plants. It includes
the study of fruits (Pomology), vegetables (Olericulture), flowering plants (Floriculture)
and Landscape gardening (Landscaping).

Agriculture needs input knowledge from complementary fields of botany, crop

breeding and genetics, soil science, chemistry and biochemistry, mathematics,
physics, plant pathology, plant/crop physiology, agricultural engineering,
entomology, economics, agricultural meteorology and others to be assured of
success in terms of stability, productivity and sustainability.