Early Bronze Age

В статье анализируются материалы памятника эпохи ранней бронзы, обнаруженные в Актюбинской области. Полученные результаты свидетельствуют о том, что захоронения были сделаны в небольшом промежутке времени. Могильник Кумсай является одним из самых южных памятников древней ямной культуры. Возможно, в бассейне реки Уил находились представители большой племенного объединения, так как были найдены похожие могильники по притоку реки Уил, реке Киыл. Согласно радиоуглеродному анализу костей человека и останков дерева от перекрытия погребений памятник датируется 4290 ± 40 лет.

Materials of a monument of the early Bronze Age, found out in the Aktyubinsk area are analyzed in the article. The received results testify to the fact that burials were made in a small interval of time and, most likely, there are the representatives of a closely related or one social family. The burial ground Kumsay is one of the most southern monuments of ancient Yamna culture. Possibly, the basin of the river Wil was occupied by a large tribal association as burial grounds with similar embankments were found down the river Kiyl. According to the radio-carbon analysis made on human bones and remains of a tree from overlapping the burials are 4290±40 years.

Metallhorte der frühen und beginnenden
mittleren Bronzezeit in Südböhmen und
Möglichkeiten ihrer Interpretationen.
Im Beitrag sind neue Erkenntnisse über südböhmische
Hortfunde der Bronze- oder Kupfergegenständen
der Stufen Bz A2 und A2/B1
zusammengefasst. Heute sind in dieser Region
insgesamt 84 Metallhorte der genannten
Epoche nachgewiesen, die in einigen Gruppen
nach ihrer Zusammensetzung verteilt
werden können (vgl. Tabelle 1). In Südböhmen
überwiegen vor allem die Rohstoffhorte,
d.h. die Hortfunde der Ring- oder Spangenbarren
(Abb. 1). Sie belegen intensive Kontakte
mit den südlich gelegenen Regionen
und die Distribution des Alpenkupfers nach
Böhmen. Viele Fremdimporte beinhalten
auch einige Hortfunde der fertigen Produkte
(vgl. Abb. 4–5, 9).
Während bis in dem Anfang der 90. Jahren
des 20. Jh. überwogen bei den Hortentdeckungen
Bau-, Förderungs- oder Feldarbeiten,
in den letzten 25 Jahren wurden alle
südböhmischen frühbronzezeitlichen Horte
von den Metallsuchern mit den Detektoren
entdeckt. Die meisten Horte wurden im
freien Lande, d.h. ohne jede Beziehungen zu
den gleichzeitigen Fundstellen, deponiert.
In Südböhmen gibt es jedoch auch Beispiele
der Hortfunde, die in Flachland- sowie Höhensiedlungen
(Abb. 6) oder in den Arealen
der Hügelgräberfelder (Abb. 7) gelegen
wurden.
Ganz schwierig ist die Lösung der Frage der
Interpretation der bronzezeitlichen Metallhorte.
Die südböhmischen früh- bis mittelbronzezeitlichen
Depotfunde sind markant
zu den Hauptwasserläufen gebunden, vor allem
zum Fluss Vltava (Abb. 1). Diese Horte
können den Verlauf der Fernwegen andeuten.
Weitere, vor allem Rohstoffhorte, können in
ihren Konzentrationen lokale metallurgische
Werkstätte markieren, die jedoch in Südböhmen
bisher nicht eindeutig nachgewiesen
sind. Die Horte, die eine außergewöhnliche
Zusammensetzung (Abb. 9), Anordnung der
Gegenstände (Abb. 2) oder spezifische topographische
Lagen aufweisen, können als votive
Opfergaben interpretiert werden.

La zona de Cataluña meridional, y en especial el Priorato, cuenta con algunos datos sobre minería prehistórica y restos metalúrgicos que permiten desarrollar un trabajo de investigación comparativo con otras zonas peninsulares y del occidente de Europa. Aunque ya se realizaron unos primeros análisis de caracterización elemental a algunos materiales de la colección Vilaseca del Museo de Reus dentro del Proyecto de Arqueometalugia de la Península Ibérica (Rovira et alii, 1997 y Martin et alii, 1999) actualmente se esta trabajando en completar la información sobre la potencialidad de su explotación durante la Prehistoria.

This paper attempts a general assessment of the contributions included in this volume. We examine three main kinds of problems related to the research on social inequality in Iberian Late Prehistory. These are theoretical, empirical and interpretative. Among the first, we comment upon the very definition of social inequality, the taxonomical categories employed in social evolution, as well as the main factors causing inequality, with special attention to labour force mobilisation. Among the second, we highlight some weaknesses of the Iberian archaeological record for the investigation of the subject matter, such as the limitations of the absolute chronology or the settlement record. Finally, we discuss the propositions that have been put forward to understand the forms that social inequality took among Neolithic, Copper and Bronze Age communities, concluding that Iberian archaeologists would much benefit from a comparative perspective.

Context is paramount. It is only when scientifically conducted excavations recover archaeological materials in their stratigraphic context that valid inferences can be made about the circumstances in which they were buried, about their chronology and about their function.
Unfortunately, however, most of the marble Early Cycladic figurines and vessels, and many other Early Cycladic atrefacts, now kept or exhibited in the world’s museums apart from the state museums of Greece (as well as nearly all those in private collections) are the product of clandestine excavations. Their findspots are unknown. The circumstances of their discovery are lost: in what circumstances they were found, with what materials they were associated at the time of their discovery are not recorded. Consequently they can add little to our knowledge and understanding of the distant Cycladic past. The looting of Cycladic antiquities represents a tragic loss of knowledge.
    The looting of the Early Cycladic cemeteries and the subsequent sale of their grave goods, marble figurines in particular, is an aspect of illicit activity which has had a continuous presence in the Cyclades since at least the late 18th century. The need of the great museums in Western Europe to form their collections resulted in the quest for art treasures in Greece. Along with the remains of the classical Greek world other antiquities, including Cycladic marble figurines, although sometimes described as ‘barbarian’ or ‘ugly’, were most welcome.
Early Cycladic sculpture was not greatly esteemed until the early twentieth century. Then, however, the modernist movements, as represented by such sculptors as Picasso, Braque, Brancusi, and Giacometti, created a new aesthetic, in which the striking simplicity of Cycladic sculpture came to be greatly appreciated. From that time these sculptures were no longer regarded as mere curiosities, but as works of art, and began to be priced accordingly. It has, indeed, been argued by Colin Renfrew that all Early Cycladic sculptures of unknown origin, and therefore lacking secure context, which have emerged on the market after the early 20th century, more specifically after the year 1914, should be regarded as of doubtful authenticity. Since that time it is clear that numerous replicas have been produced with the intention to deceive.
    Ιt was in Paris in the year 1970 that the UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property was adopted. Although it was not ratified at once by all the participating nations, it has now been very widely ratified and accepted and establishes a number of fundamental principles.
    The world’s major museums, guided by the International Council of Museums (ICOM), have now gradually adopted ethical acquisition policies, but some still do not enforce them with rigour. One might have hoped that in the light of the apparent reform in museum ethics, this perspective would be communicated to private collectors, and that demand for unprovenanced Early Cycladic sculpture on the open market would recede. However such is not the case. Auction houses widely considered respectable continue to offer for sale Cycladic antiquities which certainly have no collecting history extending back as far as 1970. The implication must certainly be that these are illicit antiquities, illegally excavated.
When the public sale of illicit antiquities continues in auction houses in London and New York it is clear that the battle against looting is not yet won. Nevertheless, if museums and private collectors would refrain from acquiring any Early Cycladic material which has come to light since 1970, the year of the UNESCO Convention, ongoing looting might be diminished.

First investigated archaeologically in 1963, it is only with the recent publication of the 2006–2008 excavations that the nature of
the Early Bronze Age sanctuary and settlement on Keros is becoming clear. Further investigations – a survey in 2012–2013 and
excavations in 2016–2018 – have expanded our knowledge of the sanctuary. This paper sets out the interdisciplinary nature of
the research on Keros, highlighting the contribution of a panoply of environmental techniques built into the project methodology
from its inception, with all sampling taking place during the excavation itself. In addition, compositional and microscopic analyses
of materials such as ceramics, metals and marble contribute to understanding their manufacture and provenance. Finally, taphonomic analyses include micromorphological and soil-chemistry studies, both of which are the largest of their kind yet undertaken
in the Aegean. The reflexive contribution of all these specialisms to the ongoing study and publication of the site is described.

Článek představuje základní výsledky dvou sezón terénního výzkumu opevněné lokality Hradiště u Plzně. Provedený řez valem prokázal dlouhý vývoj opevnění v několika chronologických fázích: od přechodného staromohylového horizontu doby bronzové, přes vlastní mohylovou a nynickou kulturu, pozdní dobu halštatskou, až po raný středověk. Byly zachyceny i stopy lidské přítomnosti v mladší době laténské, ovšem v této fázi bez prokázané fortifikace. Stopy pravěkých aktivit byly zjištěny i v prostoru bezprostředního severního sousedství lokality. Orientační rekognoskace severovýchodního úseku předsunutého valu nepřinesla žádné konkrétní poznatky k objasnění jeho původu.

The GaRKAP (i.e., Ganja Region Kurgan Archaeological Project) is a joint Azerbaijani-Italian project in western Azerbaijan that investigates the spread of the tradition of burying the dead in funerary chambers covered with circular tumuli (i.e., kurgans) in the southern Caucasus during a period ranging from the fourth to the first millennia BCE.
This paper will present the results of the first two seasons (2018 and 2019) of the archaeological work performed in the two regions investigated by the project that are: the area directly north of the modern city of Ganja (i.e., the northern section of the Heydar Aliyev Park), where numerous kurgans of the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age are located; and, the steppe region of Şadılı-Uzun Rama along the valley of the Kurekçay, a creek affluent of the Kura river in the Goranboy district, where the preliminary reconnaissance survey has identified ca. 205 kurgans dating back to the Kura-Araxes period as well as to a Late Bronze/Early Iron Age archaeological phase.

Current excavation at Lucone di Polpenazze (Brescia – ITA) – a pile-dwelling village dating to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age, situated in a small intramoraine depression west of Lake Garda – has yielded many data, revealing the daily activities that took place on platforms above the water. This operation was conducted by cross-referencing data from different fields (dendrochronology, palaeobotany, archaeozoology, micromorphology) with plentiful archaeological information, using a GIS program. This analysis made it possible to identify waste-dumping areas, house structures and storage areas, and to recognize certain activities that were performed frequently in the huts. The pile dwelling has dendrochronological dates between 2034 and 1967 BC. The abundant archaeological finds can be attributed to the Polada Culture, characteristic of the Early Bronze Age of northern Italy.

This is the first comprehensive reassessment of Early Bronze Age sculpture from the Cycladic islands in a generation. Early Cycladic Sculpture in Context examines sculpture from settlements, cemeteries, and the sanctuary at Kavos, with a discussion of material, techniques and aspects of manufacture, and combines recent archaeological data with new information on previously recorded material.

More than 50 animal-headed stone weapons have been found in the forest zone of northeastern Europe. These diverse items consist of maces and axes and they represent a variety of animal species, of which brown bear and Eurasian elk are the most common. In this article, we present an up-to-date overview of these finds and discuss their dating and cultural background. We argue that the animal-headed stone weapons were prestige items that were introduced to the northern forest zone by cattle herding groups in the 3rd millennium BC. We interpret the items as manifestations of a new set of pastoralist beliefs, in which masculinity and the bear probably played a central part.

Archaeological surveys of the Negev Highlands show that the settlement history of this arid environment oscillated widely over time. This observation is almost entirely based on scant sherd assemblages from surveys, with only a few chronometric ages from one or two archaeological features at a given site. The reasons for the scarcity of chronometric ages include insufficient attention to radiocarbon dating in past research, low amounts of datable organic material for radiocarbon dating and issues related to low rate of site accumulation, and incomplete preservation of activity remains. In order to overcome these problems, we present here the results of a detailed chronometric radiocarbon and optically stimulated lumines-cence (OSL) dating study exploring the development of Negev archaeological sites in the third millennium BCE. The study included micromorphological analyses to aid identification of sedimentological and post-depositional processes at the studied sites. At Nahal Boqer 66, one of many small Negev third millennium BCE sites, seven radiocarbon ages were determined from archaeological contexts that suggest repeated discontinuous activity throughout the Early Bronze (EB) and early part of the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA) (c. 3300-2350 BCE). At Ein Ziq- one of a few large sites in the region- seven samples were dated; they show a very short period of activity in the beginning of the IBA (c. 2450-2200 BCE). OSL age determinations at this site provided evidence for the rapidity of site burial by sediment accumulation. Also, OSL ages from secure depositional contexts verified- via micromorphology- are in agreement with those obtained by radiocarbon dating. Taken together, the results provide new systematic evidence for the timing of EB-IBA activity in the arid Negev Highlands.

The Old Kingdom of Egypt (Dynasties 4–6, c. 2600–2180 BC) is famous as a period of the builders of the largest Egyptian pyramids. It is generally accepted that the evidence on the use of copper alloy tools from this era is meagre. Martin Odler gathers the textual, iconographic and palaeographic evidence and examines Old Kingdom artefacts in order to revise this view on the use of copper alloy tools and model tools. Furthermore, he provides updated definitions of tool classes and tool kits, together with the context of their use. Besides rare specimens of full-size tools, the largest corpora of the material have been preserved in the form of model tools in the burial equipment of the Old Kingdom elite and were most probably symbols of their power to commission and fund craftwork. Moreover, the size and elaboration of the model tools were probably connected to the social status of the buried persons. The long-standing division in the Egyptological literature between full-size tools and model tools is questioned. The ancient sources also enable to show that the preservation of material culture from the Old Kingdom was largely dependent on a conscious selection made within the past culture, with completely different settlement and funerary contexts and a conspicuous absence of weapons. The volume is completed by co-authored case studies on archaeometallurgy of selected Old Kingdom artefacts in the collection of the Egyptian Museum of Leipzig University, on morphometry of Old Kingdom adze blades and on the finds of stone and ceramic vessels associated with the findings of so-called Old Kingdom model tools.

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