“Where Do the Giants Live?” Arkiv för nordisk filologi 121 (2006), 101–12.

ÁRMANN JAKOBSSON Where D o the Giants Live? O nce upon a tim e, in the forest Bragi the Old, a renowned ninth century court p oet and perhaps even the inventor of the dróttkvætt m etre, is travelling through a certain unspecified forest (“þa er hann oc vm skog nokqvorn”) late at night (“sið vm qveld”), when a certain unspecified troll-wife w ithout even a nam e (“trollkona”) throw s a verse in his direction and asks who is there. Bragi replies w ith a stanza filled w ith m etaphors (kenningar) and poetic synonyms (heiti) about poets — she replies in kind and explains who she is, starting w ith “Tra /11 kalla m ic” and ending in “hvat er tra /11 nem a þ a t” (Troll they call Jakobsson, Á ., dr. p h il., H áskóli Islands, Reykjavik. “W h ere do th e G iants Live?”, A N F 121 (2006), pp. 101-112. Abstract: T h is article exam in es ideas about the w h ereab ou ts o f giants in th e Edda o f Snorri Sturluson, w here it is not on ly d ifficu lt to d istin gu ish b etw een giants and e.g. trolls, but even m ore d ifficu lt to d eterm in e w here th ey live. G iants m ay be found in forests, in th e m ountains and on th e shores. Living on th e ou tsk irts o f the know n world, th e giants seem to be located on all p oints o f th e com pass, but are also p arti­ cularly associated w ith the East and th e N orth, perhaps reflecting th e fact that from the point o f view o f 13th century Icelanders, th ese w ere th e d irection s w here heathen and som ew hat unfam iliar races like Finns and Perm ians are to be found. T here is som e con fu sion as to w h eth er or not all giants live in Jötunheim ar, a place that is so m e ti­ m es in the East and so m etim es in th e N orth. A t th e tim e o f th e tw ilig h t o f the G ods, th e giants arrive from all d irection s and perhaps that is our b est clu e as to the giants' w h ereab ou ts in Snorri’s Edda. — T h e confusion in the Edda m ay be m ore system atic than it seem s to be at first sight. Evil is not u n ified but divided, perhaps reflecting the chaos originally associated w ith the prim eval giant Ymir, w h ich was then replaced by th e order estab lish ed by th e gods. In accordance w ith th is system , it is logical to e x p ect that the giants are going to attack from all d irection s and that giants and their kin w ill be foun d everyw here, in th e East and th e W est, th e forests and m oun tain s and in every un fam iliar place in the world. K eywords: giants, trolls, Edda Snorra Sturlusonar, O ld N orse m yth ology 102 Å rm ann Jakobsson me . .. w hat is th a t b u t a troll) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 164-65).1 Explains is a not really the best word for w hat th e troll-wife is doing, because even after having heard th e verse, we cannot really be sure w hat she is. T here is still the problem of w hat exactly a troll is sup­ posed to be. Ironically we can no longer be quite sure either about who Bragi is, w hether our protagonist is indeed Bragi Boddason the n inth century poet or some other Bragi the Old, or w hat exactly the relationship is betw een the court p oet and th e other Bragi, the god of poetry (see Mogk 1887; Bugge 1888; Mogk 1889; Turville-Petre 1964: 185-86; Clunies Ross 2006). But in this narrative, Bragi seems to be well-known indeed, so th at it is sufficient for the narrator to merely m ention his name. T he nameless troll-wife, on th e other hand, repre­ sents th e unknow n, the nature of which we may only catch a glimpse of. T he verse reveals some facts about her: th a t she has a friendly rela­ tionship w ith “volur” (sibyls or witches), and some relations w ith the dead and th e giants (“iotvns1’). Last b u t not least, she is antagonistic to th e sun (“solar ba/1”). In fact, the only thing we may be sure of is th a t she is entirely negative. She is a creature of th e night and of death, an O ther, and likely to possess otherw orldly powers. And she can be found in a certain forest late at night. As the narrative ends w ith her verse, we do not even know how the encounter ends, w hether Bragi and the troll-wife parted amicably or if one killed th e other. Although this ogress is a “trollkona”, neither Bragi nor we can be entirely sure th a t she m ight not also qualify as a “iotvnn” or even a "risi”, since these words are often used as synonyms, not only in m od­ ern Icelandic b u t also in late mediaeval literature (see esp. Schulz 2004: 29-52). For example, in the 15th century Hjálmþérs saga ok Ölvis, one of th e leading character spots a “risi” b u t tw o sentences later, this crea­ ture speaks and is now a “jö tu n n ”. T he next two tim es he speaks, he is “risinn” again, but then he is the “jö tu n in n ” (Rafn 1830: 486-88). In another legendary saga, king H rólfr G autreksson encounters a terrible “risi”, whom calls a “trö ll” to his back (Rafn 1830: 121-26), and in Egils saga ok Ásmundar, the words “jö tu n n ” and “tro ll” seem alm ost inter­ changeable (Rafn 1830: 394-402). A similar confusion is present in th e Edda Snorra Sturlusonar (c. 1 A ctually, not all m anuscripts o f E dda Snorra Sturlusonar include th e verse o f th e troll-w ife. O f th e four m ain m anuscripts, C od ex Regius has it but not C o d ex U psaliensis, C o d ex W orm ianus or C od ex Trajectinus. In th is article, all translations from the Edda Snorra Sturlusonar are m y ow n. Where Do the Giants Live? 103 1220), where the anecdote about Bragi and the troll-wife is found. According to Snorri Sturluson, the very first being is called Ymir. He and all his family are “hrim þvrsar” (frost-giants) at first, although Ymir in fact has “m annz likaNdi” (the shape of a man), b u t soon he is also referred to as a “iotvnn” (giant) and when he is killed and all his family, one escapes who is the father of the “hrim þvrsar” family, and called Bergelmir by “iotnar” (giants). These “iotnar“ continue to play a large role in the narrative. Soon we are also introduced to som ething called “Iotvnheim ar” (giantland) and a “gygr” (giantess) w ho lives in the forest Ironwood in th e east, along w ith a band of “tra/llkonvr” (trollwives) called "Iarnviðivr”, who breed giants and wolves (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 12-18). Some beings called “bergrisar” (m ountain-giants) also make an appearance before long, whose m ortal enemy Þórr is and against whom Bifrçst m ust be defended, should they wish to cross it, perhaps along w ith th e frost-giants. These m ountain-giants may be identical w ith “iotnar” (giants), since at least one of them “færiz . .. iiotvnm oð” (changed into giant shape) when provoked (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 23, 29, 33 and 47). Defining a giant in 13th and 14th century sources is thus far from unproblem atic. L otte M otz (1987) m ade a brave attem pt, arguing for four distinguishable categories of giants in some unspecified pre­ history.2 Unfortunately, even those mediaeval sources w hich wish to make such a distinction are unable to sustain it (see Å rm ann Jakobsson forthcoming). In this article I will not discuss th e term inology any fu r­ ther b u t focus instead on where such beings may be found. I will also lim it m yself to one source, the Edda Snorra Sturlusonar. This particular single source is, of course, m uch more than that. It is the m ain mythological work of the 13th century, and it is thus of some w orth to ascertain w hether the m ythologist Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241) had a clear notion of where giants lived. Furtherm ore, I do th ink it is w orth the effort to dem onstrate how even a single source presents us w ith conflicting inform ation of the w hereabouts of giants. O f course, reviewing other sources would add fu rth er examples and increase the ambiguity. However, as I will dem onstrate, that is not really necessary. Do giants, trolls and ogres live in th e forest? In this instance, yes. If travelling through the forest at night, you may run into a troll-wife. 2 T h ese four classes o f b ein gs, each w ith its ow n role, w ere lords and guardians o f nature (“jö tu n n ”), m yth ical m agicians (“troll"), h o stile and m onstrous beings (“þurs") and “heroic and cou rtly b ein g s” (risi). 104 Å rm ann Jakobsson But as a closer inspection of Edda reveals, they also live in the m oun­ tains and on the shore, in the East and in the N orth. John Lindow is m ore or less right w hen he says: “Scandinavian m ythology places the jçtnar in tw o different rem ote locations: on th e beach, and to th e east” (p. 18). This is close enough to th e tru th , but, apart from the fact th a t the term “Scandiavian m ythology” is som ewhat vague (he actually m eans Snorri), the w hereabouts of th e giants actually tu rn out to be even more uncertain than this. In fact, once you get out of th a t fam il­ iar place th a t Snorri calls “Miðgarþ" (Finnur Jónsson: 16), who knows where you m ight run into one. In the periphery A cute readers of the Edda Snorra Sturlusonar are bound to becom e infuriated w ith w hat seems to be Snorri's unconventional sense of mythological geography. According to his Gylfaginning, the first part of his Edda, there are tw o world besides th e one which we inhabit, N iflheim r in the N orth and M úspell in the South. Both are cruel in th eir excesses, one excessively cold, th e other hot. O u r own world seems to be an amalgamation of the two. W hen elem ents from these two worlds drip into the em ptiness of Ginnungagap, the clash of heat and cold make the first m an (“maNz likaNdi”) b u t this first “m an” is not a man b u t the aforem entioned frost-giant (“hrim þvss”) or a giant (“iotvn”) called Ymir, who in Snorri’s version tu rn s out to be the ancestor not of m en (cf. Meyer 1907), b u t of all giants and frost-giants (Finnur Jónsson: 12-14). Ó ðinn and his brothers descend from another first man, — but, according to Snorri’s Gylfaginning they are not the forefathers of man either, b u t create a th ird “first m an” of th e ir own out of driftw ood, along w ith his wife (Finnur Jónsson: 16). W hen Ymir has been killed by Ó ðinn and his brothers, he also ends up as the m atter of which our world is made and m an (or at least the giants) thus precedes th e world, which is essentially created out of him. It remains unclear how to define this founding father of the world, man or frost-giants or giant, as well as his race, th e giants (see Schulz 2004: 65-72; Å rm ann Jakobsson forthcom ing). In fact, the term s giant and frost-giant seem interchangable in the first C hapters of the Gylfa­ ginning, and the vagueness about the term s “iotvnn” and “hrim þvss” (and to w hat degree they should be considered hum an) eventually translates into confusion about where the giants live. Where Do the Giants Live? 105 T he first place th at Snorri Sturluson m entions is the outskirts of th e world: “Hon er kringlott vtan ok þar vtan vm liGr hiN divpi siar, ok með þeiri siavar stra/ndv gafv þeir la/nd til bygþar iotna æ ttv m ” (It is circular round the edges and th e deep sea surrounds it, and along th e shore they gave lands to the families of giants to settle) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 15). This seems to suggest th a t the geographical dem ar­ cation betw een th e gods and the giants is one of centre and periph­ ery.3 The civilized world is called “M iðgarðr” (M iddle-E arth being a tem pting translation), and only considerably later in Gylfaginning is it revealed th a t at least some giants live in th e city called “V tgarðr” (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 53) which literally would translate into “outskirt city”. As Clunies Ross has argued (1994: 50-56) this is som ewhat of an over-simplification (see also Schulz 2004: 99-106). According to her, th e idea of “M iðgarþr“ and “V tgarþr” nevertheless reveals how all the m yths are narrated from th e point of view of the gods, and thus the giants can be said to live “away” or “out th e re ”. In accordance w ith this first statem ent about the giants' w here­ abouts after th e slaughter of Ymir, when the god Þórr goes on one of his hunts for the giant serpent “Miðgarþz o rm r” th at lives in the deep sea th at surrounds the world, of course he finds giants on the shore: “G eek hann v t of Miðgarþ sva sem vngr drengr ok kom eiN aptan at qveldi til iotvns nockvrs” (H e w ent out of Miðgarðr having assum ed the guise of a young boy and came one evening at a certain giant’s) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 61). O f course, th a t may have seemed puzzling to Snorri’ s original Icelandic audience, since Iceland tended to be mostly inhabited along the shore even at th a t tim e, and central Iceland would be more likely to be their role-m odel for the wilderness. In fact, th a t is not the only peculiar thing about the centre and periphery binary in Snorri’s Edda, if we take into account th at 13th century Icelanders are more likely to have regarded them selves as being in the periphery rather than the centre (see Sverrir Jakobsson 2005: 161-88). N everthe­ less, this is at least one of Snorri's versions of where the giants live. For those who would prefer sym m etry, it is unfortunately not the only one, and in fact it is close to impossible to conceive of one single location for the giants in Snorri’s m ythical world. If the civilized world lies in th e M iddle and th e world is a globe 3 See exam ples co llected by M otz (1984). O n th e binary o f M iðgarðr and Ütgarôr as centre and periphery, see G urevich (1969) and H astrup (1985: 145-51). Stew art (1993: 71) ch aracterizes th e relationship b e tw e e n us and giants as us b ein g "enveloped by th e gigantic, surrounded by it, en closed w ith in its sh a d ow ”. io6 Å rm ann Jakobsson (“kringla heim sins” is a word famously used by Snorri in the prologue to his Heimskringla), the outskirts lie in all directions so th at if you travel for long enough, sooner or later you will find the place w here the giants live. O n the other hand, Snorri seems to favour some directions as more likely than other to lead to th e w hereabouts of the giants. N orth or East? N ot every giant seems to live on th e shore. Snorri frequently assumes th at the giants live in Iotvnheimar (giantland) (see e.g. Finnur Jónsson 1931: 17, 20, 46 and 65), and while th a t may very well be on th e shore or close to it, there is no explicit statem ent to th at fact.4 This suggests a fixed space, a terrain governed and inhabited by giants and hom e to every possible kind of ogre, including the m onstrous children of Loki: the giant wolf Fenrir, the giant serpent M iðgarðsorm r and Hel (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 34). O n at least tw o occasions, it is indicated th a t the region of Iotvnheim ar is to the north: “flygr hann nordr i Iotvnheim a” (flies n o rth to giantland) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 80; see also p. 104). As we will see, this idea does not run through Gylfaginning — b u t if Iotvnheimar are indeed to the N orth, we m ight infer th a t the natural abode of th e giants is the coldness of the N orth, which fits in w ith the notion of frost-giants. However, as it turns out, N orth is not always the direction where giants can be found. Leaving the exact location of Iotvnheimar aside for th e m om ent, the gods certainly do not need to go n o rth to find th eir enemies. T he tale of th e wicked giant H rungnir starts w hen Þórr has gone east to thrash trolls b u t Ó ðinn goes to Iotvnheim ar: “Þor var fariN i A/strvega at beria tra/ 11, en OþiN reið Sleipni ilotvnheim a” (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 100). W hile trolls and giants are not quite as inseparable as giants and frostgiants, th e dem arcation betw een them is nevertheless far from clear (see Schulz 2004: 45-46; Å rm ann Jakobsson forthcom ing). In this in­ stance, th e gods travel in tw o separate directions to encounter ogres. Þórr goes east b u t Ó ðinn goes to Iotvnheimar, which presum ably lie in the N orth. Are they seeking the same enemy? If we are supposed to regard trolls (tra/ 11) and giants (iotnar) as one 4 W h ile Iotvnheim ar is u sually translated as “gian tlan d ” in th e singluar, th e O ld N orse w ord is in the plural, w h ich exp lain s th e u se o f th e plural in th is article. Iotvnheim ar actually do not figure strongly in Eddie p oem s. T h ey are only m en tion ed in Skirnism al, Vçluspà and Þ rym skviða (K ellogg 1988: 575). Where Do the Giants Live? 107 and the same, th eir race presumably lives both in the N orth and in the East. A nd while lotvnheimar som etimes seem to lie in the N orth, it turns out th a t the land of the giants may also lie in th e East. W hen Þórr visits the giant Útgarða-Loki, he “byriaþi ferþina a/str i Iotvnheim a ok alt til hafsins, ok þa for hann v t yfir hafit þat it divpa; en er hann kom til landz, þa geck hann vpp ok með honvm Loki ok Þialfi ok Ravsqva. Þa er þa/ hqfþv litla hrið gengit, varð firir þeim m ork stor” (started on the journey east to giantland and all the way up to sea and then he crossed the deap sea. But when he reached land, he w ent ashore and Loki, Þjálfi and Ra/skva w ith him. W hen they had only walked for a short while, they came to a great forest) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 50). H ere Þórr is not only heading east to find giants but the region he is heading for is even called lotvnheimar, apparently som ewhat contradicting Snorri’s later statem ent th at while Þórr is going to the East, Ó ðinn travels north to lotvnheimar. It may not be a coincidence th at the East and th e N orth should be replete w ith giants since from the 13th century Icelanders’ point of view these directions would have been full of strange and unfam iliar races of men, such as Finns and Permians (Lindow 1995; M cKinnell 2005; Sverrir Jakobsson 2005: 217-76). Locating th e giants in the East and the N orth may indeed seem to reflect a som ewhat archaic and Norway-centric view of the world, as East and N orth to Norwegians would mean heathen and som ewhat unfam iliar races whereas to the W est and South were C hristians and m ore N orw egians.5 N ot th at giants are always presented as unfamiliar. In fact, Snorri also reveals th at the family of the gods includes their daughters, th eir ally Loki is a fosterbrother of Ó ðinn and the great god him self is the grandson of a giant. T he relationship of th e gods and the giants is thus far from simple (see e.g. Ciklam ini 1962; M otz 1982; M undal 1990, Steinsland 1991; Schulz: 256-86), although Snorri attem pts to simplify it by carv­ ing out a separate territory for these troublesom e relatives of the gods, the giantland. However, even in Snorri’s Gylfaginning, there is great uncertainty where the Land of the giants lies. lotvnheimar tu rn out to not always s T h is w o u ld not be th e only in stan ce o f a N orw ay-cen tric world view surviving in 13th-century Iceland (th e Irish are frequently referred to as “V estm en n ” in 12th and 13th century sources, although Ireland is n ot to th e W est o f th e Iceland, see Sverrir Jakobsson 2005: 217 n ote 3). N eith er is th is ty p e o f colonial archaism unique to 13th century Icelanders (21st century A ustralians refer to th e cou n tries to th e far n orth -w est as “the M iddle E ast”). io8 Arm ann Jakobsson lie in the N orth. Som etim es the gods m ust go to the East. A nd in the East there is a great forest. Forests and m ountains Is this the same forest th a t Bragi was crossing w hen he m et his trollwife? There seem to be many forests in th e East, including th e Ironwood where a giantess raises wolves: “Gygr ein byr firir [av]stan Miðgarþ iþeim skogi, er [IJarnviðr h(eitir). Iþeim skogi byggia þæ r tra/ 1konvr, er Iarnviðivr h(eita). En gamla gygr fæþir at sonvm marga iotna ok alla ivargs likivm ” (A giantess lives east of M iddle-earth in a forest called Ironwood. This forest is inhabited by those trollwives called Ironwoodesses. But th e old giantess raises as sons many giants and all in wolf shapes) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 18). A nd forests figure in m ore giant narratives of th e Edda: W hen the goddess Iðunn is abducted to Iotvnheimar, she, too, travels through a forest (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 79). Perhaps readers of Edda Snorra Sturlusonar w ere expected to m ake a distinction betw een the trolls and troll-wives in the forests of th e East and th e giants of Iotvnheim ar in the m ountains of the N orth. W hen Þórr m eets the huge Skrým ir in the forest he tells them to go east to Útgarðr while he is heading north to th e m ountains: “þa stefnit þer iavstr, en ek á nv norðr leið til fialla þesa” (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 53). And East is the place where Þórr goes to thrash his trolls: “þa var hann fariN iAustrveg a tb eria tra/ 11” (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 46; see also p. 121). In this particular episode, it is possible to argue for a distinction made betw een trolls, forests and the East on one hand, and on th e other giants, m ountains and the N orth. But infortunately, in Gylfaginning as a whole, this distinction is at best hazy and we cannot so easily resolve the controversy or overlook the fact th at in Edda Snorra Sturlusonar, Iotvnheimar are som etim es in the East b u t som etim es in the N orth. In the beginning of the Edda, giants are m ore frequently known as frost-giants (“hrim þvssar”) rather than giants (“iotnar”) or trolls (“tra/ 11”). Once Snorri claims th at these frost-giants now live where th at great void Ginnungagap used to be (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 22). There is no fu rth er depiction of th a t particular place, apart from the fact th at there is a well there, guarded by the extrem ely wise M im ir who probably is a frost-giant, although th a t is not explicitly stated — Snorri merely says th at his well is located w here th e frost-giants live, adding “heitir sa Mimir, er a brvNinn” (the owner of th e well is nam ed Where Do the Giants Live? log M imir) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 22). G iants thus may be found near a well, as well as on the shore and in th e forest. It is unclear how th at may be a foundation for the closeness of giants and m ountains, or a relationship w ith forests. However, Snorri soon starts producing examples of giants who in­ habit the m ountains — influenced perhaps by giant kennings where their relationship w ith m ountains seems overwhelm ing (M eissner 1921: 256-58). T he giantess Skaði who m arries the god Niorðr turns out to be used to m ountain landscape (which contributes to th e wreckage of th eir marriage) (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 30). Ó öinn also finds the giant Suttungr in a m ountain (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 83-84) and when Loki assumes th e form of the party-pooping giantess Þavck he, too, dwells in a cave (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 67). But while Snorri seems to be aware of the fact th at giants may be located in m ountains, also reflected in the word “bergrisar” (m ountain-giants) (see e.g. Finnur Jónsson 1931: 23, 29 and 33), in his Gylfaginning, m ountains nevertheless do not to have more prom inence as a dwelling place for giants than th e shore or the forest (cf. M otz 1984). Surrounded by evil W hen th e tw ilight of the gods (the "ragna ra/kr“) is near, th eir enemies attack from all directions. T he frost-giants arrive from th e sea while the sons of M úspell cross the rainbow of Bifravst (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 71). The gods seem surrounded, w hich m ight fit in w ith a world-view where the civilization lies at th e centre, in the Mitgarðr. But this centre is surrounded by outskirts, a shore in an undisclosed direction, a N orth w ith m ountain-giants and an East replete w ith forests and trolls. Possibly, there is no real discrepancy — gods and hum ans are simply surrounded by “iotnar“ and “tra d l” and “hrím þvrsar” and “bergrisar”. They live on th e shore and in th e East and in the N o rth and in the forest and in th e m ountains. They are, indeed, everywhere. In Snorri’s presentation of th e tw ilight of the gods in Gylfaginning, it is revealed th a t the giants very m uch outnum ber the gods, and it thus alm ost seems like an act of destiny th a t they have to surround the centre and seem to be everywhere: in th e forests and caves and m ountains and sea-shores — in th e East and the N o rth and perhaps everywhere if you venture far enough. Snorri also presents them as being more fertile. Before th e gods kill him , Ymir can m ultiply by no Å rm ann Jakobsson rubbing his feet together and by sweating, w hich seems in the end bound to produce a lot of “hrim þvrsar” (Finnur Jónsson 1931: 13), and enable them to attack from all directions in the tw ilight of the gods. W hen th e old giant Ymir was killed and his body transform ed into the world, cosmos succeeded chaos — th e gods arrange the new world to their own liking. T he killers of Ymir are not presented as creators ex nihilo, instead they are the makers of the world order and thus the slay­ ers of the chaos th a t preceded it (see e.g. Clunies Ross 1994: 197-98, 262-63; Kroesen 1996: 59). In this binary, th e giants and frost-giants and all th eir family represent chaos. Thus it is perhaps only logical th a t they should have many names and th a t they should be grouped into hazy sub-categories w ith vague dem arcation betw een th e various classes. They are after all th e enemies of order and m ethod. Perhaps it is also th eir chaotic nature w hich allows them to trium ph in th e tw ilight of the gods. It needs only one tiny thing to be out of order for chaos to replace unity. A nd it seems to be equally logical th at the gods should live together and be united while the giants can be found in all directions. W hile good is unified, evil is divided. W hile harm ony can be found in a single place, discord is everywhere. And so, indeed, are th e giants. They are in th e East and in the N orth, on the shores and in th e forest and in th e m ountains. To pin them down is to deny the giants th eir very chaotic essence. As the encounter betw een Bragi and the troll-wife dem onstrates, it is impossible to be quite sure of how to classify the creatures you m ight encounter in the dark forest of the night. T here are frost-giants, m ountain-dwellers, trolls, ogres and all sorts of evil creatures lurking in th e unfam iliar places of the world. And you may encounter th em anywhere. 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