EP3585900B1 - Matériels et méthodes de traitement d'ataxia spinocerebellaire de type 2 (sca2) et d'autres maladies ou de troubles liés au gene du protéine ataxia spinocerebellaire de type 2 (sca2) - Google Patents

Matériels et méthodes de traitement d'ataxia spinocerebellaire de type 2 (sca2) et d'autres maladies ou de troubles liés au gene du protéine ataxia spinocerebellaire de type 2 (sca2) Download PDF

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EP3585900B1
EP3585900B1 EP18710915.2A EP18710915A EP3585900B1 EP 3585900 B1 EP3585900 B1 EP 3585900B1 EP 18710915 A EP18710915 A EP 18710915A EP 3585900 B1 EP3585900 B1 EP 3585900B1
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sequence
cell
cells
gene
atxn2
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Ante Sven LUNDBERG
Samarth Kulkarni
Lawrence Klein
Hari Kumar PADMANABHAN
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CRISPR Therapeutics AG
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Definitions

  • the present disclosure provides materials and methods for treating a patient with Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 (SCA2) and other Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 protein (ATXN2) gene related conditions or disorders, both ex vivo and in vivo.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2
  • ATXN2 Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 protein
  • Genome engineering refers to the strategies and techniques for the targeted, specific modification of the genetic information (genome) of living organisms. Genome engineering is a very active field of research because of the wide range of possible applications, particularly in the areas of human health. For example, genome engineering can be used to alter (e.g., correct or knock-out) a gene carrying a harmful mutation, or to explore the function of a gene. Early technologies developed to insert a transgene into a living cell were often limited by the random nature of the insertion of the new sequence into the genome. Random insertions into the genome may result in disrupting normal regulation of neighboring genes leading to severe unwanted effects. Furthermore, random integration technologies offer little reproducibility, as there is no guarantee that the sequence would be inserted at the same place in two different cells.
  • MARTHALER ET AL "Generation of an isogenic, gene-corrected control cell line of the spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 patient-derived iPSC line H266",STEM CELL RESEARCH, vol. 16, no. 1, 1 January 2016 (2016-01-01), pages 202-205 ; and ADELE G.
  • MARTHALER ET AL "Generation of an isogenic, gene-corrected control cell line of the spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 patient-derived iPSC line H196",STEM CELL RESEARCH, vol. 16, no. 1, 1 January 2016 (2016-01-01), pages 162-165 , disclose the generation of ARXN2-corrected cell lines using CRISPR/Cas methodology.
  • the invention relates to S. pyogenes Cas9 specific single-molecule guide RNA (sgRNA) as specified in the claims, DNA encoding the sgRNA, a pharmaceutical composition comprising the sgRNA or the DNA, methods for editing an ATXN2 gene using the sgRNA or DNA and uses thereof.
  • sgRNA single-molecule guide RNA
  • Other sgRNA as described herein defined by other SEQ ID NOs. are not part of the invention.
  • the gene editing method of the invention is not a process for modifying the germ line genetic identity of human beings and is not a method for treatment of the human or animal body by therapy.
  • ATXN2 Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 Protein
  • Such methods can reduce or eliminate the expression or function of aberrant ATXN2 gene products and/or restore the wild-type ATXN2 protein activity, which can be used to treat an ATXN2 related condition or disorder such as Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2).
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • components and compositions, and vectors for performing such methods are provided herein.
  • the method can comprise introducing into the cell one or more deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) endonucleases to effect one or more single-strand breaks (SSBs) or double-strand breaks (DSBs) within or near the ATXN2 gene.
  • the one or more SSBs or DSBs can result in a permanent deletion in the expanded trinucleotide repeat or replacement of one or more nucleotide bases, or one or more exons and/or introns within or near the ATXN2 gene, thereby restoring the ATXN2 gene function.
  • the method can comprise introducing into the cell one or more DNA endonucleases to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs within or near the ATXN2 gene or ATXN2 regulatory pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) within or near a ATXN2 gene or other DNA sequences that encode regulatory elements of the ATXN2 gene; differentiating the edited iPSC into a neuron or glial cell of the Central Nervous System (CNS); and implanting the neuron or glial cell of the CNS into the patient.
  • iPSC ATXN2 regulatory pluripotent stem cell
  • the editing step can comprise introducing into the iPSC one or more DNA endonucleases to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs within or near the ATXN2 gene that results in a permanent deletion of the expanded trinucleotide repeat or replacement of one or more nucleotide bases, or one or more exons and/or introns within or near the ATXN2 gene and/or a permanent deletion in the expanded trinucleotide repeat, thereby restoring the ATXN2 gene function.
  • Another editing step can comprise introducing into the iPSC one or more DNA endonucleases to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs within or near the ATXN2 gene or ATXN2 regulatory elements that results in one or more permanent insertion, deletion or mutation of at least one nucleotide within or near the ATXN2 gene, thereby reducing or eliminating the expression or function of aberrant ATXN2 gene products.
  • the method can further comprise creating the iPSC.
  • the creating step can comprise isolating a somatic cell from the patient; and introducing a set of pluripotency-associated genes into the somatic cell to induce the somatic cell to become the iPSC.
  • the somatic cell can be a fibroblast.
  • the set of pluripotency-associated genes can be one or more of the genes selected from the group consisting of: OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, Lin28, NANOG and cMYC.
  • the method can comprise: editing a mesenchymal stem cell within or near an ATXN2 gene or other DNA sequences that encode regulatory elements of the ATXN2 gene; differentiating the edited mesenchymal stem cell into a neuron or glial cell of the CNS; and implanting the neuron or glial cell of the CNS into the patient.
  • the editing step can comprise: introducing into the mesenchymal stem cell one or more DNA endonucleases to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs within or near the ATXN2 gene that results in a permanent deletion of the expanded trinucleotide repeat or replacement of one or more nucleotide bases, or one or more exons and/or introns within or near the ATXN2 gene, thereby restoring the ATXN2 gene function.
  • Another editing step can comprise: introducing into the mesenchymal stem cell one or more DNA endonucleases to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs within or near the ATXN2 gene or ATXN2 regulatory elements that results in one or more permanent insertion, deletion or mutation of at least one nucleotide within or near the ATXN2 gene and/or a permanent deletion in the expanded trinucleotide repeat, thereby reducing or eliminating the expression or function of aberrant ATXN2 gene products.
  • the method can further comprise isolating the mesenchymal stem cell from the patient, wherein the mesenchymal stem cell is isolated from the patient's bone marrow or peripheral blood.
  • the isolating step can comprise aspiration of bone marrow and isolation of mesenchymal stem cells using density gradient centrifugation media.
  • Also provided herein is an in vivo method for treating a patient with an ATXN2 related disorder.
  • the method can comprise editing the ATXN2 gene in a cell of the patient.
  • the editing step can comprise introducing into the cell one or more DNA endonucleases to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs within or near the ATXN2 gene that results in a permanent deletion of the expanded trinucleotide repeat or replacement of one or more nucleotide bases, or one or more exons and/or introns within or near the ATXN2 gene, thereby restoring the ATXN2 gene function.
  • Another editing step can comprise: introducing into the cell one or more DNA endonucleases to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs within or near the ATXN2 gene or ATXN2 regulatory elements that results in one or more permanent insertion, deletion or mutation of at least one nucleotide within or near the ATXN2 gene and/or a permanent deletion in the expanded trinucleotide repeat, thereby reducing or eliminating the expression or function of aberrant ATXN2 gene products.
  • the cell can be a cell of the CNS.
  • the cell of the CNS can be a neuron.
  • the cell of the CNS can be a glial cell.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be delivered to the cell of the CNS via any administration route selected from the group consisting of intraparenchymal, intravenous, intraarterial, intracerebroventricular, intracisternal, intrathecal, intracranial or intraperitoneal routes.
  • the ATXN2 related condition or disorder can be Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2).
  • the ATXN2 related condition or disorder can be amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
  • Also provided herein is a method of altering the contiguous genomic sequence of an ATXN2 gene in a cell.
  • the method can comprise: contacting the cell with one or more DNA endonuclease to effect one or more SSBs or DSBs.
  • the alteration of the contiguous genomic sequence can occur in one or more exons of the ATXN2 gene.
  • the alteration of the contiguous genomic sequence can occur in exon 1 of the ATXN2 gene.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be selected from any of those sequences in SEQ ID NOs: 1-620 and variants having at least 90% homology to any of those sequences disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 1-620.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be one or more protein or polypeptide.
  • the one or more protein or polypeptide can be flanked at the N-terminus, the C-terminus, or both the N-terminus and C-terminus by one or more nuclear localization signals (NLSs).
  • the one or more protein or polypeptide can be flanked by two NLSs, one NLS located at the N-terminus and the second NLS located at the C-terminus.
  • the one or more NLSs can be a SV40 NLS.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be one or more polynucleotide encoding the one or more DNA endonuclease.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be one or more ribonucleic acid (RNA) encoding the one or more DNA endonuclease.
  • the one or more RNA can be one or more chemically modified RNA.
  • the one or more RNA can be chemically modified in the coding region.
  • the one or more polynucleotide or one or more RNA can be codon optimized.
  • the methods can further comprise introducing one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA.
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can comprise a spacer sequence that is complementary to a sequence within or near the expanded trinucleotide repeat in the ATXN2 gene.
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can comprise a spacer sequence that is complementary to a DNA sequence within or near the ATXN2 gene.
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can comprise a spacer sequence that is complementary to a sequence flanking the ATXN2 gene or other sequence that encodes a regulatory element of the ATXN2 gene.
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can comprise a spacer sequence that is complementary to a DNA sequence within or near exon 1 of the ATXN2 gene.
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can be chemically modified.
  • the one or more modified sgRNAs can comprise three 2'-O-methyl-phosphorothioate residues at or near each of its 5' and 3' ends.
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can comprise a RNA sequence corresponding to a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 34621, 34565, 34606, 54554, 34437, 34563, 54418, 54661, 34632, 34446, 54409, 54671, 54693, 54539, 54408, 54555, 54694, 34505, 54695, 34504, 34542, 54672, 34562, 34435, 54523, 54669, 34544, 54660, 54646, 54648, 34503, 54691, 54407, 54422, 54556, 54411, 54421, 54540, 54541, 34484, 5
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can be pre-complexed with the one or more DNA endonuclease to form one or more ribonucleoproteins (RNPs).
  • the pre-complexing can involve a covalent attachment of the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA to the one or more DNA endonuclease.
  • the weight ratio of sgRNA to DNA endonuclease in the RNP can be 1:1.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be formulated in a liposome or lipid nanoparticle.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be formulated in a liposome or a lipid nanoparticle which also comprises the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be encoded in an AAV vector particle.
  • the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can be encoded in an AAV vector particle.
  • the one or more DNA endonuclease can be encoded in an AAV vector particle which also encodes the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA.
  • the AAV vector particle can be selected from the group consisting of any of those sequences disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 4734-5302 and Table 2.
  • the methods can further comprise introducing into the cell a donor template comprising at least a portion of the wild-type ATXN2 gene.
  • the at least a portion of the wild-type ATXN2 gene can comprise one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of an ATXN2 exon, an ATXN2 intron, and a sequence comprising an exon:intron junction of ATXN2.
  • the donor template can comprise homologous arms to the genomic locus of the ATXN2 gene.
  • the donor template can be either a single or double stranded polynucleotide.
  • the donor template can be encoded in an AAV vector particle, where the AAV vector particle is selected from the group consisting of any of those disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 4734-5302 and Table 2.
  • the one or more polynucleotide encoding one or more DNA endonuclease can be formulated into a lipid nanoparticle, and the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA can be delivered to the cell ex vivo by electroporation and the donor template can be delivered to the cell by an AAV vector.
  • the one or more polynucleotide encoding one or more DNA endonuclease can be formulated into a liposome or lipid nanoparticle which also comprises the one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA and the donor template.
  • the ATXN2 gene can be located on Chromosome 12: 111,452,214-111,599,676 (Genome Reference Consortium - GRCh38).
  • RNA sequence corresponding to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 5305-108,217 is also provided herein.
  • the single-molecule guide RNA can further comprise a spacer extension region.
  • the single-molecule guide RNA can further comprise a tracrRNA extension region.
  • the single-molecule guide RNA can be chemically modified.
  • the single-molecule guide RNA can be pre-complexed with a DNA endonuclease.
  • the DNA endonuclease can be a Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease.
  • the Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease can be selected from the group consisting of: S . pyogenes Cas9, S. aureus Cas9, N. meningitidis Cas9, S. thermophilus CRISPR1 Cas9, S . thermophilus CRISPR 3 Cas9, T.
  • the Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease can comprise one or more NLSs. At least one NLS can be at or within 50 amino acids of the amino-terminus of the Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease and/or at least one NLS can be at or within 50 amino acids of the carboxy-terminus of the Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease.
  • Also provided herein is a DNA encoding the single-molecule guide RNA.
  • a therapeutic comprising at least one or more gRNAs for editing an ATXN2 gene in a cell from a patient with an ATXN2 related condition or disorder, the one or more gRNAs comprising a spacer sequence selected from the group consisting of nucleic acid sequences in any one of SEQ ID NOs: 5305 - 108,217 of the Sequence Listing.
  • a therapeutic for treating a patient with an ATXN2 related condition or disorder formed by the method comprising: introducing one or more DNA endonucleases; introducing one or more gRNA or one or more sgRNA for editing a ATXN2 gene; wherein the one or more gRNAs or sgRNAs comprise a spacer sequence selected from the group consisting of nucleic acid sequences in SEQ ID NOs: 5305 - 108,217 of the Sequence Listing.
  • the ATXN2 related condition or disorder can be SCA2.
  • the ATXN2 related condition or disorder can be amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
  • alteration or “alteration of genetic information” refers to any change in the genome of a cell. In the context of treating genetic disorders, alterations may include, but are not limited to, insertion, deletion and correction.
  • insertion refers to an addition of one or more nucleotides in a DNA sequence. Insertions can range from small insertions of a few nucleotides to insertions of large segments such as a cDNA or a gene.
  • deletion refers to a loss or removal of one or more nucleotides in a DNA sequence or a loss or removal of the function of a gene.
  • a deletion can include, for example, a loss of a few nucleotides, an exon, an intron, a gene segment, or the entire sequence of a gene.
  • deletion of a gene refers to the elimination or reduction of the function or expression of a gene or its gene product. This can result from not only a deletion of sequences within or near the gene, but also other events (e.g. , insertion, nonsense mutation) that disrupt the expression of the gene.
  • correction refers to a change of one or more nucleotides of a genome in a cell, whether by insertion, deletion or substitution. Such correction may result in a more favorable genotypic or phenotypic outcome, whether in structure or function, to the genomic site which was corrected.
  • One non-limiting example of a "correction” includes the correction of a mutant or defective sequence to a wild-type sequence which restores structure or function to a gene or its gene product(s). Depending on the nature of the mutation, correction may be achieved via various strategies disclosed herein. In one non-limiting example, a missense mutation may be corrected by replacing the region containing the mutation with its wild-type counterpart. As another example, duplication mutations (e.g. , repeat expansions) in a gene may be corrected by removing the extra sequences.
  • alterations may also include a gene knock-in, knock-out or knock-down.
  • knock-in refers to an addition of a DNA sequence, or fragment thereof into a genome.
  • DNA sequences to be knocked-in may include an entire gene or genes, may include regulatory sequences associated with a gene or any portion or fragment of the foregoing.
  • a cDNA encoding the wild-type protein may be inserted into the genome of a cell carrying a mutant gene.
  • Knock-in strategies need not replace the defective gene, in whole or in part.
  • a knock-in strategy may further involve substitution of an existing sequence with the provided sequence, e.g. , substitution of a mutant allele with a wild-type copy.
  • the term “knock-out” refers to the elimination of a gene or the expression of a gene.
  • a gene can be knocked out by either a deletion or an addition of a nucleotide sequence that leads to a disruption of the reading frame.
  • a gene may be knocked out by replacing a part of the gene with an irrelevant sequence.
  • knock-down refers to reduction in the expression of a gene or its gene product(s). As a result of a gene knock-down, the protein activity or function may be attenuated or the protein levels may be reduced or eliminated.
  • Genome editing generally refers to the process of modifying the nucleotide sequence of a genome, preferably in a precise or pre-determined manner.
  • methods of genome editing described herein include methods of using site-directed nucleases to cut deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) at precise target locations in the genome, thereby creating single-strand or double-strand DNA breaks at particular locations within the genome.
  • breaks can be and regularly are repaired by natural, endogenous cellular processes, such as homology-directed repair (HDR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), as reviewed in Cox et al., Nature Medicine 21(2), 121-31 (2015 ).
  • HDR homology-directed repair
  • NHEJ non-homologous end joining
  • HDR directly joins the DNA ends resulting from a double-strand break, sometimes with the loss or addition of nucleotide sequence, which may disrupt or enhance gene expression.
  • HDR utilizes a homologous sequence, or donor sequence, as a template for inserting a defined DNA sequence at the break point.
  • the homologous sequence can be in the endogenous genome, such as a sister chromatid.
  • the donor can be an exogenous nucleic acid, such as a plasmid, a single-strand oligonucleotide, a double-stranded oligonucleotide, a duplex oligonucleotide or a virus, that has regions of high homology with the nuclease-cleaved locus, but which can also contain additional sequence or sequence changes including deletions that can be incorporated into the cleaved target locus.
  • a third repair mechanism can be microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ), also referred to as "Alternative NHEJ," in which the genetic outcome is similar to NHEJ in that small deletions and insertions can occur at the cleavage site.
  • MMEJ microhomology-mediated end joining
  • MMEJ can make use of homologous sequences of a few base pairs flanking the DNA break site to drive a more favored DNA end joining repair outcome, and recent reports have further elucidated the molecular mechanism of this process; see, e.g., Cho and Greenberg, Nature 518, 174-76 (2015 ); Kent et al., Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, Adv. Online doi:10.1038/nsmb.2961(2015 ); Mateos-Gomez et al., Nature 518, 254-57 (2015 ); Ceccaldi et al., Nature 528, 258-62 (2015 ). In some instances, it may be possible to predict likely repair outcomes based on analysis of potential microhomologies at the site of the DNA break.
  • a step in the genome editing process can be to create one or two DNA breaks, the latter as double-strand breaks or as two single-stranded breaks, in the target locus as near the site of intended mutation. This can be achieved via the use of site-directed polypeptides, as described and illustrated herein.
  • a CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) genomic locus can be found in the genomes of many prokaryotes (e.g., bacteria and archaea). In prokaryotes, the CRISPR locus encodes products that function as a type of immune system to help defend the prokaryotes against foreign invaders, such as virus and phage. There are three stages of CRISPR locus function: integration of new sequences into the CRISPR locus, expression of CRISPR RNA (crRNA), and silencing of foreign invader nucleic acid. Five types of CRISPR systems (e.g. , Type I, Type II, Type III, Type U, and Type V) have been identified.
  • a CRISPR locus includes a number of short repeating sequences referred to as "repeats.” When expressed, the repeats can form secondary structures (e.g., hairpins) and/or comprise unstructured single-stranded sequences.
  • the repeats usually occur in clusters and frequently diverge between species.
  • the repeats are regularly interspaced with unique intervening sequences referred to as "spacers,” resulting in a repeat-spacer-repeat locus architecture.
  • the spacers are identical to or have high homology with known foreign invader sequences.
  • a spacer-repeat unit encodes a crisprRNA (crRNA), which is processed into a mature form of the spacer-repeat unit.
  • crRNA crisprRNA
  • a crRNA comprises a "seed” or spacer sequence that is involved in targeting a target nucleic acid (in the naturally occurring form in prokaryotes, the spacer sequence targets the foreign invader nucleic acid).
  • a spacer sequence is located at the 5' or 3' end of the crRNA.
  • a CRISPR locus also comprises polynucleotide sequences encoding CRISPR Associated (Cas) genes.
  • Cas genes encode endonucleases involved in the biogenesis and the interference stages of crRNA function in prokaryotes. Some Cas genes comprise homologous secondary and/or tertiary structures.
  • crRNA biogenesis in a Type II CRISPR system in nature requires a trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA).
  • tracrRNA trans-activating CRISPR RNA
  • Figures 1A and 1B Non-limiting examples of Type II CRISPR systems are shown in Figures 1A and 1B .
  • the tracrRNA can be modified by endogenous RNaseIII, and then hybridizes to a crRNA repeat in the pre-crRNA array. Endogenous RNaseIII can be recruited to cleave the pre-crRNA. Cleaved crRNAs can be subjected to exoribonuclease trimming to produce the mature crRNA form (e.g., 5' trimming).
  • the tracrRNA can remain hybridized to the crRNA, and the tracrRNA and the crRNA associate with a site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9).
  • the crRNA of the crRNA-tracrRNA-Cas9 complex can guide the complex to a target nucleic acid to which the crRNA can hybridize. Hybridization of the crRNA to the target nucleic acid can activate Cas9 for targeted nucleic acid cleavage.
  • the target nucleic acid in a Type II CRISPR system is referred to as a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM).
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • the PAM is essential to facilitate binding of a site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9) to the target nucleic acid.
  • Type II systems also referred to as Nmeni or CASS4 are further subdivided into Type II-A (CASS4) and II-B (CASS4a).
  • CASS4 Type II-A
  • II-B Type II-B
  • Jinek et al., Science, 337(6096):816-821 (2012 ) showed that the CRISPR/Cas9 system is useful for RNA-programmable genome editing
  • international patent application publication number WO2013/176772 provides numerous examples and applications of the CRISPR/Cas endonuclease system for site-specific gene editing.
  • Type V CRISPR systems have several important differences from Type II systems.
  • Cpfl is a single RNA-guided endonuclease that, in contrast to Type II systems, lacks tracrRNA.
  • Cpfl-associated CRISPR arrays can be processed into mature crRNAs without the requirement of an additional trans-activating tracrRNA.
  • the Type V CRISPR array can be processed into short mature crRNAs of 42-44 nucleotides in length, with each mature crRNA beginning with 19 nucleotides of direct repeat followed by 23-25 nucleotides of spacer sequence.
  • mature crRNAs in Type II systems can start with 20-24 nucleotides of spacer sequence followed by about 22 nucleotides of direct repeat.
  • Cpfl can utilize a T-rich protospacer-adjacent motif such that Cpfl-crRNA complexes efficiently cleave target DNA preceded by a short T-rich PAM, which is in contrast to the G-rich PAM following the target DNA for Type II systems.
  • Type V systems cleave at a point that is distant from the PAM
  • Type II systems cleave at a point that is adjacent to the PAM.
  • Cpfl cleaves DNA via a staggered DNA double-stranded break with a 4 or 5 nucleotide 5' overhang.
  • Type II systems cleave via a blunt double-stranded break.
  • Cpfl contains a predicted RuvC-like endonuclease domain, but lacks a second HNH endonuclease domain, which is in contrast to Type II systems.
  • Exemplary CRISPR/Cas polypeptides include the Cas9 polypeptides as published in Fonfara et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 42: 2577-2590 (2014 ). The CRISPR/Cas gene naming system has undergone extensive rewriting since the Cas genes were discovered. Fonfara et al. also provides PAM sequences for the Cas9 polypeptides from various species (see also Table 1 infra ) .
  • cellular, ex vivo and in vivo methods for using genome engineering tools to create permanent changes to the genome by: 1) deleting the abnormal repeat expansion within the ATXN2 gene, by inducing two double-stranded DNA breaks at both sides of the expanded region, and replacing with a corrected sequence; 2) deleting the abnormal repeat expansion within the ATXN2 gene, by inducing one double-stranded DNA break proximal to the expanded region, and replacing with a corrected sequence; 3) deleting or mutating the ATXN2 gene by inducing one or more insertions or deletions within or near the ATXN2 gene or other DNA sequences that encode regulatory elements of the ATXN2 gene; or 4) deleting the mutant ATXN2 gene and inserting a wild-type ATXN2 gene, a cDNA or a minigene (comprised of one or more exons and optionally one or more introns, including natural or synthetic introns) into the ATXN2 gene locus or a safe harbor locus.
  • Such methods use endonucleases, such as CRISPR-associated (Cas9, Cpfl and the like) nucleases, to permanently edit one or more mutations within or near the genomic locus of the ATXN2 gene or other DNA sequences that encode regulatory elements of the ATXN2 gene.
  • endonucleases such as CRISPR-associated (Cas9, Cpfl and the like) nucleases
  • examples set forth in the present disclosure can help to restore the wild-type sequence of, or otherwise reduce or eliminate the expression of, the ATXN2 gene with as few as a single treatment (rather than deliver potential therapies for the lifetime of the patient).
  • the methods provided above can involve one or a combination of the following: 1) deleting the entire expanded trinucleotide repeat or a portion thereof in or near the ATXN2 gene, by inducing two double-stranded DNA breaks at both sides of the expanded region, and replacing with a corrected sequence; 2) deleting the entire expanded trinucleotide repeat or a portion thereof in or near the ATXN2 gene, by inducing one double-stranded DNA break proximal to the expanded region, and replacing with a corrected sequence; 3) reducing (knock-down) or eliminating (knock-out) the expression of the mutant ATXN2 gene by inducing one or more insertions, deletions or mutations within or near the ATXN2 gene or other DNA sequences that encode regulatory elements of the ATXN2 gene; or 4) deleting the mutant ATXN2 gene and inserting a wild-type ATXN2 gene, a cDNA or
  • the dual DSB-induced deletion strategy can involve excising the entire abnormal repeat expansion or a portion thereof in the ATXN2 gene by inducing two or more double stranded breaks at both sides of the repeat region with one or more CRISPR endonucleases and two or more sgRNAs.
  • a donor DNA containing the corrected sequence can be provided to restore the wild-type sequence. This approach can require development and optimization of sgRNAs and donor DNA molecule for the ATXN2 gene.
  • the single DSB-induced deletion strategy can involve deleting the entire abnormal repeat expansion or a portion thereof in the ATXN2 gene by inducing one double stranded break at a site proximal to the repeat region with one or more CRISPR endonucleases and a gRNA (e.g., crRNA + tracrRNA, or sgRNA).
  • a gRNA e.g., crRNA + tracrRNA, or sgRNA
  • a donor DNA containing the corrected sequence can be provided to restore the wild-type sequence.
  • This approach can require development and optimization of gRNAs and donor DNA molecule for the ATXN2 gene.
  • the knock-down or knock-out strategy can involve disrupting the reading frame in the ATXN2 gene by introducing random insertions or deletions (indels) that arise due to the imprecise NHEJ repair pathway.
  • This can be achieved by inducing one single stranded break or double stranded break in the ATXN2 gene with one or more CRISPR endonucleases and a gRNA (e.g., crRNA + tracrRNA, or sgRNA), or two or more single stranded breaks or double stranded breaks in the ATXN2 gene with two or more CRISPR endonucleases and two or more sgRNAs.
  • This approach can require development and optimization of sgRNAs for the ATXN2 gene.
  • the whole gene correction strategy can involve disruption/deletion of the endogenous, mutated ATXN2 gene and insertion of a wild-type ATXN2 gene, a cDNA or a minigene (comprised of one or more exons and optionally one or more introns, including natural or synthetic introns) into the locus of the ATXN2 gene.
  • gRNAs e.g., crRNA + tracrRNA, or sgRNA
  • a donor DNA that contains the desired sequence and homology arms to the flanking regions of the target locus.
  • this can be achieved by delivering into the cell one or more CRISPR endonucleases, one or more gRNAs (e.g., crRNA + tracrRNA, or sgRNA) targeting the 5' end of the ATXN2 gene, and a donor DNA that contains the desired sequence and homology arms to the flanking regions of the target locus.
  • gRNAs e.g., crRNA + tracrRNA, or sgRNA
  • the cytogenetic location of the ATXN2 gene is 12q24.12.
  • the wild-type ATXN2 gene, a cDNA or a minigene can be inserted into a safe harbor locus.
  • a "safe harbor locus” refers to a region of the genome where the integrated material can be adequately expressed without perturbing endogenous genome structure or function.
  • the safe harbor loci include but are not limited to AAVS1 (intron 1 of PPP1R12C), HPRT, H11, hRosa26 and/or F-A region.
  • the safe harbor loci can be selected from the group consisting of: exon 1, intron 1 or exon 2 of PPP1R12C; exon 1, intron 1 or exon 2 of HPRT; and exon 1, intron 1 or exon 2 of hRosa26.
  • the safe harbor loci may be exons or introns of ubiquitously expressed genes and/or genes with tissue specific expression (e.g.: nervous system).
  • a safe harbor loci may also include regions of the genome devoid of endogeneous genes and with open chromatin that allows expression of the inserted transgene without perturbing the genome structure or function.
  • the whole gene correction strategy utilizes a donor DNA template in Homology-Directed Repair (HDR).
  • HDR may be accomplished by making one or more single-stranded breaks (SSBs) or double-stranded breaks (DSBs) at specific sites in the genome by using one or more endonucleases.
  • the donor DNA can be single or double stranded DNA.
  • the donor template can have homologous arms to the 12q24.12 region.
  • the donor template can have homologous arms to a safe harbor locus.
  • the donor template can have homologous arms to an AAVS1 safe harbor locus, such as, intron 1 of the PPP1R12C gene.
  • the donor template can have homologous arms to a hRosa26 safe harbor locus.
  • Another strategy involves modulating expression, function, or activity of ATXN2 by editing in the regulatory sequence.
  • Cas9 or similar proteins can be used to target effector domains to the same target sites that can be identified for editing, or additional target sites within range of the effector domain.
  • a range of chromatin modifying enzymes, methylases or demethylases can be used to alter expression of the target gene.
  • One possibility is decreasing the expression of the ATXN2 protein if the mutation leads to undesirable activity.
  • a number of types of genomic target sites can be present in addition to the trinucleotide repeat expansion in the coding sequence of the ATXN2 gene.
  • transcription and translation implicates a number of different classes of sites that interact with cellular proteins or nucleotides. Often the DNA binding sites of transcription factors or other proteins can be targeted for mutation or deletion to study the role of the site, though they can also be targeted to change gene expression. Sites can be added through non-homologous end joining NHEJ or direct genome editing by homology directed repair (HDR). Increased use of genome sequencing, RNA expression and genome-wide studies of transcription factor binding have increased our ability to identify how the sites lead to developmental or temporal gene regulation. These control systems can be direct or can involve extensive cooperative regulation that can require the integration of activities from multiple enhancers. Transcription factors typically bind 6-12 bp-long degenerate DNA sequences.
  • binding sites with less degeneracy can provide simpler means of regulation.
  • Artificial transcription factors can be designed to specify longer sequences that have less similar sequences in the genome and have lower potential for off-target cleavage. Any of these types of binding sites can be mutated, deleted or even created to enable changes in gene regulation or expression ( Canver, M.C. et al., Nature (2015 )).
  • a site-directed polypeptide is a nuclease used in genome editing to cleave DNA.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can be administered to a cell or a patient as either: one or more polypeptides, or one or more mRNAs encoding the polypeptide. Any of the enzymes or orthologs disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 1-620, or disclosed herein may be utilized in the methods herein.
  • Single-molecule guide RNA can be pre-complexed with a site-directed polypeptide.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can be any of the DNA endonuclease disclosed herein.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can bind to a guide RNA that, in turn, specifies the site in the target DNA to which the polypeptide is directed.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can be an endonuclease, such as a DNA endonuclease.
  • a site-directed polypeptide can comprise a plurality of nucleic acid-cleaving (i.e., nuclease) domains. Two or more nucleic acid-cleaving domains can be linked together via a linker.
  • the linker can comprise a flexible linker.
  • Linkers can comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 35, 40 or more amino acids in length.
  • Naturally-occurring wild-type Cas9 enzymes comprise two nuclease domains, a HNH nuclease domain and a RuvC domain.
  • Cas9 refers to both a naturally-occurring and a recombinant Cas9.
  • Cas9 enzymes contemplated herein can comprise a HNH or HNH-like nuclease domain, and/or a RuvC or RuvC-like nuclease domain.
  • HNH or HNH-like domains comprise a McrA-like fold.
  • HNH or HNH-like domains comprises two antiparallel ⁇ -strands and an ⁇ -helix.
  • HNH or HNH-like domains comprises a metal binding site (e.g., a divalent cation binding site).
  • HNH or HNH-like domains can cleave one strand of a target nucleic acid (e.g., the complementary strand of the crRNA targeted strand).
  • RuvC or RuvC-like domains comprise an RNaseH or RNaseH-like fold.
  • RuvC/RNaseH domains are involved in a diverse set of nucleic acid-based functions including acting on both RNA and DNA.
  • the RNaseH domain comprises 5 ⁇ -strands surrounded by a plurality of ⁇ -helices.
  • RuvC/RNaseH or RuvC/RNaseH-like domains comprise a metal binding site ( e.g., a divalent cation binding site).
  • RuvC/RNaseH or RuvC/RNaseH-like domains can cleave one strand of a target nucleic acid (e.g., the non-complementary strand of a double-stranded target DNA).
  • Site-directed polypeptides can introduce double-strand breaks or single-strand breaks in nucleic acids, e.g ., genomic DNA.
  • the double-strand break can stimulate a cell's endogenous DNA-repair pathways (e.g. , homology-dependent repair (HDR) or NHEJ or alternative non-homologous end joining (A-NHEJ) or microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ)).
  • NHEJ can repair cleaved target nucleic acid without the need for a homologous template. This can sometimes result in small deletions or insertions (indels) in the target nucleic acid at the site of cleavage, and can lead to disruption or alteration of gene expression.
  • HDR can occur when a homologous repair template, or donor, is available.
  • the homologous donor template can comprise sequences that are homologous to sequences flanking the target nucleic acid cleavage site.
  • the sister chromatid can be used by the cell as the repair template.
  • the repair template can be supplied as an exogenous nucleic acid, such as a plasmid, duplex oligonucleotide, single-strand oligonucleotide or viral nucleic acid.
  • an additional nucleic acid sequence such as a transgene
  • modification such as a single or multiple base change or a deletion
  • MMEJ can result in a genetic outcome that is similar to NHEJ in that small deletions and insertions can occur at the cleavage site.
  • MMEJ can make use of homologous sequences of a few base pairs flanking the cleavage site to drive a favored end-joining DNA repair outcome. In some instances, it may be possible to predict likely repair outcomes based on analysis of potential microhomologies in the nuclease target regions.
  • homologous recombination can be used to insert an exogenous polynucleotide sequence into the target nucleic acid cleavage site.
  • An exogenous polynucleotide sequence is termed a "donor polynucleotide" (or donor or donor sequence) herein.
  • the donor polynucleotide, a portion of the donor polynucleotide, a copy of the donor polynucleotide, or a portion of a copy of the donor polynucleotide can be inserted into the target nucleic acid cleavage site.
  • the donor polynucleotide can be an exogenous polynucleotide sequence, i.e., a sequence that does not naturally occur at the target nucleic acid cleavage site.
  • the modifications of the target DNA due to NHEJ and/or HDR can lead to, for example, mutations, deletions, alterations, integrations, gene correction, gene replacement, gene tagging, transgene insertion, nucleotide deletion, gene disruption, translocations and/or gene mutation.
  • the processes of deleting genomic DNA and integrating non-native nucleic acid into genomic DNA are examples of genome editing.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise an amino acid sequence having at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 99%, or 100% amino acid sequence identity to a wild-type exemplary site-directed polypeptide [ e . g ., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, US2014/0068797 Sequence ID No. 8 or Sapranauskas et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 39(21): 9275-9282 (2011 )], and various other site-directed polypeptides.
  • a wild-type exemplary site-directed polypeptide e . g ., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, US2014/0068797 Sequence ID No. 8 or Sapranauskas et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 39(21): 9275-92
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise at least 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 99, or 100% identity to a wild-type site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, supra ) over 10 contiguous amino acids.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise at most: 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 99, or 100% identity to a wild-type site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, supra) over 10 contiguous amino acids.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise at least: 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 99, or 100% identity to a wild-type site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, supra ) over 10 contiguous amino acids in a HNH nuclease domain of the site-directed polypeptide.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise at most: 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 99, or 100% identity to a wild-type site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, supra ) over 10 contiguous amino acids in a HNH nuclease domain of the site-directed polypeptide.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise at least: 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 99, or 100% identity to a wild-type site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, supra ) over 10 contiguous amino acids in a RuvC nuclease domain of the site-directed polypeptide.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise at most: 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 99, or 100% identity to a wild-type site-directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, supra ) over 10 contiguous amino acids in a RuvC nuclease domain of the site-directed polypeptide.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise a modified form of a wild-type exemplary site-directed polypeptide.
  • the modified form of the wild-type exemplary site-directed polypeptide can comprise a mutation that reduces the nucleic acid-cleaving activity of the site-directed polypeptide.
  • the modified form of the wild-type exemplary site-directed polypeptide can have less than 90%, less than 80%, less than 70%, less than 60%, less than 50%, less than 40%, less than 30%, less than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 1% of the nucleic acid-cleaving activity of the wild-type exemplary site-directed polypeptide ( e.g., Cas9 from S . pyogenes, supra ) .
  • the modified form of the site-directed polypeptide can have no substantial nucleic acid-cleaving activity.
  • a site-directed polypeptide is a modified form that has no substantial nucleic acid-cleaving activity, it is referred to herein as "enzymatically inactive.”
  • the modified form of the site-directed polypeptide can comprise a mutation such that it can induce a single-strand break (SSB) on a target nucleic acid (e.g., by cutting only one of the sugar-phosphate backbones of a double-strand target nucleic acid).
  • the mutation can result in less than 90%, less than 80%, less than 70%, less than 60%, less than 50%, less than 40%, less than 30%, less than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 1% of the nucleic acid-cleaving activity in one or more of the plurality of nucleic acid-cleaving domains of the wild-type site directed polypeptide (e.g., Cas9 from S. pyogenes, supra ) .
  • the mutation can result in one or more of the plurality of nucleic acid-cleaving domains retaining the ability to cleave the complementary strand of the target nucleic acid, but reducing its ability to cleave the non-complementary strand of the target nucleic acid.
  • the mutation can result in one or more of the plurality of nucleic acid-cleaving domains retaining the ability to cleave the non-complementary strand of the target nucleic acid, but reducing its ability to cleave the complementary strand of the target nucleic acid. For example, residues in the wild-type exemplary S.
  • pyogenes Cas9 polypeptide such as Asp10, His840, Asn854 and Asn856, are mutated to inactivate one or more of the plurality of nucleic acid-cleaving domains (e.g., nuclease domains).
  • the residues to be mutated can correspond to residues Asp10, His840, Asn854 and Asn856 in the wild-type exemplary S. pyogenes Cas9 polypeptide (e.g., as determined by sequence and/or structural alignment).
  • Non-limiting examples of mutations include D10A, H840A, N854A or N856A.
  • mutations other than alanine substitutions can be suitable.
  • a D10A mutation can be combined with one or more of H840A, N854A, or N856A mutations to produce a site-directed polypeptide substantially lacking DNA cleavage activity.
  • a H840A mutation can be combined with one or more of D10A, N854A, or N856A mutations to produce a site-directed polypeptide substantially lacking DNA cleavage activity.
  • a N854A mutation can be combined with one or more of H840A, D10A, or N856A mutations to produce a site-directed polypeptide substantially lacking DNA cleavage activity.
  • a N856A mutation can be combined with one or more of H840A, N854A, or D10A mutations to produce a site-directed polypeptide substantially lacking DNA cleavage activity.
  • Site-directed polypeptides that comprise one substantially inactive nuclease domain are referred to as "nickases.”
  • RNA-guided endonucleases for example Cas9
  • Wild type Cas9 is typically guided by a single guide RNA designed to hybridize with a specified -20 nucleotide sequence in the target sequence (such as an endogenous genomic locus).
  • target sequence such as an endogenous genomic locus
  • several mismatches can be tolerated between the guide RNA and the target locus, effectively reducing the length of required homology in the target site to, for example, as little as 13 nt of homology, and thereby resulting in elevated potential for binding and double-strand nucleic acid cleavage by the CRISPR/Cas9 complex elsewhere in the target genome - also known as off-target cleavage.
  • nickase variants of Cas9 each only cut one strand, in order to create a double-strand break it is necessary for a pair of nickases to bind in close proximity and on opposite strands of the target nucleic acid, thereby creating a pair of nicks, which is the equivalent of a double-strand break.
  • nickases can also be used to promote HDR versus NHEJ.
  • HDR can be used to introduce selected changes into target sites in the genome through the use of specific donor sequences that effectively mediate the desired changes.
  • Mutations contemplated can include substitutions, additions, and deletions, or any combination thereof.
  • the mutation converts the mutated amino acid to alanine.
  • the mutation converts the mutated amino acid to another amino acid (e.g., glycine, serine, threonine, cysteine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, proline, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, asparagine, glutamine, histidine, lysine, or arginine).
  • the mutation converts the mutated amino acid to a non-natural amino acid (e.g ., selenomethionine).
  • the mutation converts the mutated amino acid to amino acid mimics (e.g. , phosphomimics).
  • the mutation can be a conservative mutation.
  • the mutation converts the mutated amino acid to amino acids that resemble the size, shape, charge, polarity, conformation, and/or rotamers of the mutated amino acids (e.g., cysteine/serine mutation, lysine/asparagine mutation, histidine/phenylalanine mutation).
  • the mutation can cause a shift in reading frame and/or the creation of a premature stop codon. Mutations can cause changes to regulatory regions of genes or loci that affect expression of one or more genes.
  • the site-directed polypeptide (e.g ., variant, mutated, enzymatically inactive and/or conditionally enzymatically inactive site-directed polypeptide) can target nucleic acid.
  • the site-directed polypeptide e.g. , variant, mutated, enzymatically inactive and/or conditionally enzymatically inactive endoribonuclease
  • can target DNA can target DNA.
  • the site-directed polypeptide e.g., variant, mutated, enzymatically inactive and/or conditionally enzymatically inactive endoribonuclease
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise one or more non-native sequences (e.g., the site-directed polypeptide is a fusion protein).
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise an amino acid sequence comprising at least 15% amino acid identity to a Cas9 from a bacterium (e.g., S. pyogenes ) , a nucleic acid binding domain, and two nucleic acid cleaving domains ( i.e., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain).
  • a Cas9 from a bacterium e.g., S. pyogenes
  • nucleic acid binding domain e.g., S. pyogenes
  • two nucleic acid cleaving domains i.e., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise an amino acid sequence comprising at least 15% amino acid identity to a Cas9 from a bacterium (e.g., S. pyogenes), and two nucleic acid cleaving domains (i.e., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain).
  • a Cas9 from a bacterium e.g., S. pyogenes
  • two nucleic acid cleaving domains i.e., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise an amino acid sequence comprising at least 15% amino acid identity to a Cas9 from a bacterium ( e.g., S. pyogenes ) , and two nucleic acid cleaving domains, wherein one or both of the nucleic acid cleaving domains comprise at least 50% amino acid identity to a nuclease domain from Cas9 from a bacterium ( e.g., S. pyogenes ) .
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise an amino acid sequence comprising at least 15% amino acid identity to a Cas9 from a bacterium (e.g., S. pyogenes ) , two nucleic acid cleaving domains (i.e ., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain), and a non-native sequence (for example, a nuclear localization signal) or a linker linking the site-directed polypeptide to a non-native sequence.
  • a Cas9 from a bacterium (e.g., S. pyogenes )
  • two nucleic acid cleaving domains i.e ., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain
  • a non-native sequence for example, a nuclear localization signal
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise an amino acid sequence comprising at least 15% amino acid identity to a Cas9 from a bacterium (e.g., S. pyogenes ) , two nucleic acid cleaving domains ( i.e. , a HNH domain and a RuvC domain), wherein the site-directed polypeptide comprises a mutation in one or both of the nucleic acid cleaving domains that reduces the cleaving activity of the nuclease domains by at least 50%.
  • a Cas9 from a bacterium
  • two nucleic acid cleaving domains i.e. , a HNH domain and a RuvC domain
  • the site-directed polypeptide can comprise an amino acid sequence comprising at least 15% amino acid identity to a Cas9 from a bacterium (e.g., S. pyogenes ) , and two nucleic acid cleaving domains (i.e., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain), wherein one of the nuclease domains comprises mutation of aspartic acid 10, and/or wherein one of the nuclease domains can comprise a mutation of histidine 840, and wherein the mutation reduces the cleaving activity of the nuclease domain(s) by at least 50%.
  • a Cas9 from a bacterium
  • two nucleic acid cleaving domains i.e., a HNH domain and a RuvC domain
  • one of the nuclease domains comprises mutation of aspartic acid 10
  • one of the nuclease domains can comprise a mutation of histidine 840, and wherein the mutation reduces the
  • the one or more site-directed polypeptides can comprise two nickases that together effect one double-strand break at a specific locus in the genome, or four nickases that together effect or cause two double-strand breaks at specific loci in the genome.
  • one site-directed polypeptide e.g. DNA endonuclease
  • Non-limiting examples of Cas9 orthologs from other bacterial strains include but are not limited to, Cas proteins identified in Acaryochloris marina MBIC11017; Acelohalobium arabaticum DSM 5501; Acidithiobacillus caldus; Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans ATCC 23270; Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius LAA1; Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius subsp. acidocaldarius DSM 446; Allochromatium vinosum DSM 180; Ammonifex degensii KC4; Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413; Arthrospira maxima CS-328; Arthrospiraplatensis str.
  • PCC 8106 Marinobacter sp. ELB17; Methanohalobium evestigatum Z-7303; Microcystis phage Ma-LMM01; Microcystis aeruginosa NIES-843; Microscilla marina ATCC 23134; Microcoleus chthonoplastes PCC 7420; Neisseria meningitidis; Nitrosococcus halophilus Nc4; Nocardiopsis rougevillei subsp. josonvillei DSM 43111; Nodularia spumigena CCY9414; Nostoc sp. PCC 7120; Oscillatoria sp.
  • PCC 6506 Pelotomaculum_thermopropionicum_ SI; Petrotoga mobilis SJ95; Polaromonas naphthalenivorans CJ2; Polaromonas sp. JS666; Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125; Streptomyces pristinae spiralis ATCC 25486; Streptomyces pristinaespiralis ATCC 25486; Streptococcus thermophilus; Streptomyces viridochromogenes DSM 40736; Streptosporangium roseum DSM 43021; Synechococcus sp. PCC 7335; and Thermosipho africanus TCF52B ( Chylinski et al., RNA Biol., 2013; 10(5): 726-737 ).
  • Cas9 orthologs In addition to Cas9 orthologs, other Cas9 variants such as fusion proteins of inactive dCas9 and effector domains with different functions may be served as a platform for genetic modulation. Any of the foregoing enzymes may be useful in the present disclosure.
  • endonucleases that may be utilized in the present disclosure are provided in SEQ ID NOs: 1-620. These proteins may be modified before use or may be encoded in a nucleic acid sequence such as a DNA, RNA or mRNA or within a vector construct such as the plasmids or AAV vectors taught herein. Further, they may be codon optimized.
  • SEQ ID NOs: 1-620 disclose a non-exhaustive listing of endonuclease sequences.
  • the present disclosure provides a genome-targeting nucleic acid that can direct the activities of an associated polypeptide (e.g., a site-directed polypeptide) to a specific target sequence within a target nucleic acid.
  • the genome-targeting nucleic acid can be an RNA.
  • a genome-targeting RNA is referred to as a "guide RNA" or "gRNA" herein.
  • a guide RNA can comprise at least a spacer sequence that hybridizes to a target nucleic acid sequence of interest, and a CRISPR repeat sequence.
  • the gRNA also comprises a second RNA called the tracrRNA sequence.
  • the CRISPR repeat sequence and tracrRNA sequence hybridize to each other to form a duplex.
  • the crRNA forms a duplex.
  • the duplex can bind a site-directed polypeptide, such that the guide RNA and site-direct polypeptide form a complex.
  • the genome-targeting nucleic acid can provide target specificity to the complex by virtue of its association with the site-directed polypeptide. The genome-targeting nucleic acid thus can direct the activity of the site-directed polypeptide.
  • Exemplary guide RNAs include the spacer sequences in SEQ ID NOs: 5305-108,217 of the Sequence Listing.
  • Each guide RNA can be designed to include a spacer sequence complementary to its genomic target sequence.
  • each of the spacer sequences in SEQ ID NOs: 5305-108,217 of the Sequence Listing can be put into a single RNA chimera or a crRNA (along with a corresponding tracrRNA). See Jinek et al., Science, 337, 816-821 (2012 ) and Deltcheva et al., Nature, 471, 602-607 (2011 ).
  • the genome-targeting nucleic acid can be a double-molecule guide RNA.
  • the genome-targeting nucleic acid can be a single-molecule guide RNA.
  • a double-molecule guide RNA can comprise two strands of RNA.
  • the first strand comprises in the 5' to 3' direction, an optional spacer extension sequence, a spacer sequence and a minimum CRISPR repeat sequence.
  • the second strand can comprise a minimum tracrRNA sequence (complementary to the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence), a 3' tracrRNA sequence and an optional tracrRNA extension sequence.
  • a single-molecule guide RNA (sgRNA) in a Type II system can comprise, in the 5' to 3' direction, an optional spacer extension sequence, a spacer sequence, a minimum CRISPR repeat sequence, a single-molecule guide linker, a minimum tracrRNA sequence, a 3' tracrRNA sequence and an optional tracrRNA extension sequence.
  • the optional tracrRNA extension can comprise elements that contribute additional functionality (e.g ., stability) to the guide RNA.
  • the single-molecule guide linker can link the minimum CRISPR repeat and the minimum tracrRNA sequence to form a hairpin structure.
  • the optional tracrRNA extension can comprise one or more hairpins.
  • the sgRNA can comprise a 20 nucleotide spacer sequence at the 5' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise a less than a 20 nucleotide spacer sequence at the 5' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise a more than 20 nucleotide spacer sequence at the 5' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise a variable length spacer sequence with 17-30 nucleotides at the 5' end of the sgRNA sequence (see Table 1).
  • the sgRNA can comprise no uracil at the 3'end of the sgRNA sequence, such as in SEQ ID NO: 108,250 of Table 1.
  • the sgRNA can comprise one or more uracil at the 3'end of the sgRNA sequence, such as in SEQ ID NO: 108,251 in Table 1.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 1 uracil (U) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 2 uracil (UU) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 3 uracil (UUU) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 4 uracil (UUUU) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 5 uracil (UUUUU) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 6 uracil (UUUUUU) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 7 uracil (UUUUUUU) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • the sgRNA can comprise 8 uracil (UUUUUUUU) at the 3' end of the sgRNA sequence.
  • modified sgRNAs can comprise one or more 2'-O-methyl phosphorothioate nucleotides.
  • Table 1 SEQ ID NO. sgRNA sequence 108,249 108,250 108,251
  • a single-molecule guide RNA (sgRNA) in a Type V system can comprise, in the 5' to 3' direction, a minimum CRISPR repeat sequence and a spacer sequence.
  • guide RNAs used in the CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpfl system can be readily synthesized by chemical means, as illustrated below and described in the art. While chemical synthetic procedures are continually expanding, purifications of such RNAs by procedures such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, which avoids the use of gels such as PAGE) tends to become more challenging as polynucleotide lengths increase significantly beyond a hundred or so nucleotides.
  • HPLC high performance liquid chromatography
  • One approach used for generating RNAs of greater length is to produce two or more molecules that are ligated together. Much longer RNAs, such as those encoding a Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease, are more readily generated enzymatically.
  • RNA modifications can be introduced during or after chemical synthesis and/or enzymatic generation of RNAs, e.g ., modifications that enhance stability, reduce the likelihood or degree of innate immune response, and/or enhance other attributes, as described in the art.
  • a spacer extension sequence can modify activity, provide stability and/or provide a location for modifications of a genome-targeting nucleic acid.
  • a spacer extension sequence can modify on- or off-target activity or specificity.
  • a spacer extension sequence can be provided.
  • the spacer extension sequence can have a length of more than 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, 400, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, or 7000 or more nucleotides.
  • the spacer extension sequence can have a length of less than 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, 400, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000 or more nucleotides.
  • the spacer extension sequence can be less than 10 nucleotides in length.
  • the spacer extension sequence can be between 10-30 nucleotides in length.
  • the spacer extension sequence can be between 30-70 nucleotides in length.
  • the spacer extension sequence can comprise another moiety (e.g., a stability control sequence, an endoribonuclease binding sequence, a ribozyme).
  • the moiety can decrease or increase the stability of a nucleic acid targeting nucleic acid.
  • the moiety can be a transcriptional terminator segment ( i.e., a transcription termination sequence).
  • the moiety can function in a eukaryotic cell.
  • the moiety can function in a prokaryotic cell.
  • the moiety can function in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
  • Non-limiting examples of suitable moieties include: a 5' cap (e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m7 G)), a riboswitch sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and protein complexes), a sequence that forms a dsRNA duplex ( i.e., a hairpin), a sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like), a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g.
  • a 5' cap e.g., a 7-methylguanylate cap (m7 G)
  • a riboswitch sequence e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and protein complexes
  • a sequence that forms a dsRNA duplex i.e., a hairpin
  • a sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location e.g
  • proteins e.g ., proteins that act on DNA, including transcriptional activators, transcriptional repressors, DNA methyltransferases, DNA demethylases, histone acetyltransferases, histone deacetylases, and the like).
  • the spacer sequence hybridizes to a sequence in a target nucleic acid of interest.
  • the spacer of a genome-targeting nucleic acid can interact with a target nucleic acid in a sequence-specific manner via hybridization ( i.e., base pairing).
  • the nucleotide sequence of the spacer can vary depending on the sequence of the target nucleic acid of interest.
  • the spacer sequence can be designed to hybridize to a target nucleic acid that is located 5' of a PAM of the Cas9 enzyme used in the system.
  • the spacer may perfectly match the target sequence or may have mismatches.
  • Each Cas9 enzyme has a particular PAM sequence that it recognizes in a target DNA.
  • S. pyogenes recognizes in a target nucleic acid a PAM that comprises the sequence 5'-NRG-3', where R comprises either A or G, where N is any nucleotide and N is immediately 3' of the target nucleic acid sequence targeted by the spacer sequence.
  • the target nucleic acid sequence can comprise 20 nucleotides.
  • the target nucleic acid can comprise less than 20 nucleotides.
  • the target nucleic acid can comprise more than 20 nucleotides.
  • the target nucleic acid can comprise at least: 5, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30 or more nucleotides.
  • the target nucleic acid can comprise at most: 5, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30 or more nucleotides.
  • the target nucleic acid sequence can comprise 20 bases immediately 5' of the first nucleotide of the PAM.
  • the target nucleic acid in a sequence comprising 5'-NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNRG-3' (SEQ ID NO: 108,248), can comprise the sequence that corresponds to the Ns, wherein N is any nucleotide, and the underlined NRG sequence is the S. pyogenes PAM.
  • This target nucleic acid sequence is often referred to as the PAM strand, and the complementary nucleic acid sequence is often referred to the non-PAM strand.
  • the spacer sequence hybridizes to the non-PAM strand of the target nucleic acid ( Figures 1A and 1B ).
  • the spacer sequence that hybridizes to the target nucleic acid can have a length of at least about 6 nucleotides (nt).
  • the spacer sequence can be at least about 6 nt, at least about 10 nt, at least about 15 nt, at least about 18 nt, at least about 19 nt, at least about 20 nt, at least about 25 nt, at least about 30 nt, at least about 35 nt or at least about 40 nt, from about 6 nt to about 80 nt, from about 6 nt to about 50 nt, from about 6 nt to about 45 nt, from about 6 nt to about 40 nt, from about 6 nt to about 35 nt, from about 6 nt to about 30 nt, from about 6 nt to about 25 nt, from about 6 nt to about 20 nt, from about 6 nt to about 19 nt, from about 10 nt to about 50 nt, from about
  • the spacer sequence can comprise 20 nucleotides. In some examples, the spacer sequence can comprise 19 nucleotides. In some examples, the spacer sequence can comprise 18 nucleotides. In some examples, the spacer sequence can comprise 21 nucleotides. In some examples, the spacer sequence can comprise 22 nucleotides.
  • the percent complementarity between the spacer sequence and the target nucleic acid is at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100%.
  • the percent complementarity between the spacer sequence and the target nucleic acid is at most about 30%, at most about 40%, at most about 50%, at most about 60%, at most about 65%, at most about 70%, at most about 75%, at most about 80%, at most about 85%, at most about 90%, at most about 95%, at most about 97%, at most about 98%, at most about 99%, or 100%.
  • the percent complementarity between the spacer sequence and the target nucleic acid is 100% over the six contiguous 5'-most nucleotides of the target sequence of the complementary strand of the target nucleic acid.
  • the percent complementarity between the spacer sequence and the target nucleic acid can be at least 60% over about 20 contiguous nucleotides.
  • the length of the spacer sequence and the target nucleic acid can differ by 1 to 6 nucleotides, which may be thought of as a bulge or bulges.
  • the spacer sequence can be designed or chosen using a computer program.
  • the computer program can use variables, such as predicted melting temperature, secondary structure formation, predicted annealing temperature, sequence identity, genomic context, chromatin accessibility, % GC, frequency of genomic occurrence ( e.g., of sequences that are identical or are similar but vary in one or more spots as a result of mismatch, insertion or deletion), methylation status, presence of SNPs, and the like.
  • a minimum CRISPR repeat sequence is a sequence with at least about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or 100% sequence identity to a reference CRISPR repeat sequence (e.g., crRNA from S. pyogenes ) .
  • a reference CRISPR repeat sequence e.g., crRNA from S. pyogenes
  • a minimum CRISPR repeat sequence comprises nucleotides that can hybridize to a minimum tracrRNA sequence in a cell.
  • the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence and a minimum tracrRNA sequence can form a duplex, i.e. a base-paired double-stranded structure. Together, the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence and the minimum tracrRNA sequence can bind to the site-directed polypeptide. At least a part of the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence can hybridize to the minimum tracrRNA sequence.
  • At least a part of the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence can comprise at least about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or 100% complementary to the minimum tracrRNA sequence. In some aspects, at least a part of the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence comprises at most about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or 100% complementary to the minimum tracrRNA sequence.
  • the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence can have a length from about 7 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the length of the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence is from about 7 nucleotides (nt) to about 50 nt, from about 7 nt to about 40 nt, from about 7 nt to about 30 nt, from about 7 nt to about 25 nt, from about 7 nt to about 20 nt, from about 7 nt to about 15 nt, from about 8 nt to about 40 nt, from about 8 nt to about 30 nt, from about 8 nt to about 25 nt, from about 8 nt to about 20 nt, from about 8 nt to about 15 nt, from about 15 nt to about 100 nt, from about 15 nt to about 80 nt, from about 15 nt to about 50 nt, from about 15 nt to about 40 nt, from about 15 nt to about 30 n
  • the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence can be at least about 60% identical to a reference minimum CRISPR repeat sequence (e.g., wild-type crRNA from S. pyogenes ) over a stretch of at least 6, 7, or 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence can be at least about 65% identical, at least about 70% identical, at least about 75% identical, at least about 80% identical, at least about 85% identical, at least about 90% identical, at least about 95% identical, at least about 98% identical, at least about 99% identical or 100% identical to a reference minimum CRISPR repeat sequence over a stretch of at least 6, 7, or 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • a minimum tracrRNA sequence can be a sequence with at least about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or 100% sequence identity to a reference tracrRNA sequence (e.g ., wild type tracrRNA from S. pyogenes ) .
  • a reference tracrRNA sequence e.g ., wild type tracrRNA from S. pyogenes
  • a minimum tracrRNA sequence can comprise nucleotides that hybridize to a minimum CRISPR repeat sequence in a cell.
  • a minimum tracrRNA sequence and a minimum CRISPR repeat sequence form a duplex, i.e. a base-paired double-stranded structure. Together, the minimum tracrRNA sequence and the minimum CRISPR repeat can bind to a site-directed polypeptide. At least a part of the minimum tracrRNA sequence can hybridize to the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence.
  • the minimum tracrRNA sequence can be at least about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or 100% complementary to the minimum CRISPR repeat sequence.
  • the minimum tracrRNA sequence can have a length from about 7 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the minimum tracrRNA sequence can be from about 7 nucleotides (nt) to about 50 nt, from about 7 nt to about 40 nt, from about 7 nt to about 30 nt, from about 7 nt to about 25 nt, from about 7 nt to about 20 nt, from about 7 nt to about 15 nt, from about 8 nt to about 40 nt, from about 8 nt to about 30 nt, from about 8 nt to about 25 nt, from about 8 nt to about 20 nt, from about 8 nt to about 15 nt, from about 15 nt to about 100 nt, from about 15 nt to about 80 nt, from about 15 nt to about 50 nt, from about 15 nt to about 40 nt, from about 15 nt to about 30 nt or
  • the minimum tracrRNA sequence can be approximately 9 nucleotides in length.
  • the minimum tracrRNA sequence can be approximately 12 nucleotides.
  • the minimum tracrRNA can consist of tracrRNA nt 23-48 described in Jinek et al., supra.
  • the minimum tracrRNA sequence can be at least about 60% identical to a reference minimum tracrRNA (e.g., wild type, tracrRNA from S. pyogenes ) sequence over a stretch of at least 6, 7, or 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • a reference minimum tracrRNA e.g., wild type, tracrRNA from S. pyogenes
  • the minimum tracrRNA sequence can be at least about 65% identical, about 70% identical, about 75% identical, about 80% identical, about 85% identical, about 90% identical, about 95% identical, about 98% identical, about 99% identical or 100% identical to a reference minimum tracrRNA sequence over a stretch of at least 6, 7, or 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • the duplex between the minimum CRISPR RNA and the minimum tracrRNA can comprise a double helix.
  • the duplex between the minimum CRISPR RNA and the minimum tracrRNA can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 or more nucleotides.
  • the duplex between the minimum CRISPR RNA and the minimum tracrRNA can comprise at most about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 or more nucleotides.
  • the duplex can comprise a mismatch (i.e., the two strands of the duplex are not 100% complementary).
  • the duplex can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or mismatches.
  • the duplex can comprise at most about 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or mismatches.
  • the duplex can comprise no more than 2 mismatches.
  • a bulge is an unpaired region of nucleotides within the duplex.
  • a bulge can contribute to the binding of the duplex to the site-directed polypeptide.
  • the bulge can comprise, on one side of the duplex, an unpaired 5'-XXXY-3' where X is any purine and Y comprises a nucleotide that can form a wobble pair with a nucleotide on the opposite strand, and an unpaired nucleotide region on the other side of the duplex.
  • the number of unpaired nucleotides on the two sides of the duplex can be different.
  • the bulge can comprise an unpaired purine (e.g ., adenine) on the minimum CRISPR repeat strand of the bulge.
  • the bulge can comprise an unpaired 5'-AAGY-3' of the minimum tracrRNA sequence strand of the bulge, where Y comprises a nucleotide that can form a wobble pairing with a nucleotide on the minimum CRISPR repeat strand.
  • a bulge on the minimum CRISPR repeat side of the duplex can comprise at least 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or more unpaired nucleotides.
  • a bulge on the minimum CRISPR repeat side of the duplex can comprise at most 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or more unpaired nucleotides.
  • a bulge on the minimum CRISPR repeat side of the duplex can comprise 1 unpaired nucleotide.
  • a bulge on the minimum tracrRNA sequence side of the duplex can comprise at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 or more unpaired nucleotides.
  • a bulge on the minimum tracrRNA sequence side of the duplex can comprise at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 or more unpaired nucleotides.
  • a bulge on a second side of the duplex e.g., the minimum tracrRNA sequence side of the duplex
  • a bulge can comprise at least one wobble pairing. In some examples, a bulge can comprise at most one wobble pairing. A bulge can comprise at least one purine nucleotide. A bulge can comprise at least 3 purine nucleotides. A bulge sequence can comprise at least 5 purine nucleotides. A bulge sequence can comprise at least one guanine nucleotide. In some examples, a bulge sequence can comprise at least one adenine nucleotide.
  • one or more hairpins can be located 3' to the minimum tracrRNA in the 3' tracrRNA sequence.
  • the hairpin can start at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, or 20 or more nucleotides 3' from the last paired nucleotide in the minimum CRISPR repeat and minimum tracrRNA sequence duplex.
  • the hairpin can start at most about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 or more nucleotides 3' of the last paired nucleotide in the minimum CRISPR repeat and minimum tracrRNA sequence duplex.
  • the hairpin can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, or 20 or more consecutive nucleotides.
  • the hairpin can comprise at most about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, or more consecutive nucleotides.
  • the hairpin can comprise a CC dinucleotide (i.e., two consecutive cytosine nucleotides).
  • the hairpin can comprise duplexed nucleotides (e.g ., nucleotides in a hairpin, hybridized together).
  • a hairpin can comprise a CC dinucleotide that is hybridized to a GG dinucleotide in a hairpin duplex of the 3' tracrRNA sequence.
  • One or more of the hairpins can interact with guide RNA-interacting regions of a site-directed polypeptide.
  • a 3' tracrRNA sequence can comprise a sequence with at least about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or 100% sequence identity to a reference tracrRNA sequence (e.g., a tracrRNA from S. pyogenes ) .
  • a reference tracrRNA sequence e.g., a tracrRNA from S. pyogenes
  • the 3' tracrRNA sequence can have a length from about 6 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • the 3' tracrRNA sequence can have a length from about 6 nucleotides (nt) to about 50 nt, from about 6 nt to about 40 nt, from about 6 nt to about 30 nt, from about 6 nt to about 25 nt, from about 6 nt to about 20 nt, from about 6 nt to about 15 nt, from about 8 nt to about 40 nt, from about 8 nt to about 30 nt, from about 8 nt to about 25 nt, from about 8 nt to about 20 nt, from about 8 nt to about 15 nt, from about 15 nt to about 100 nt, from about 15 nt to about 80 nt, from about 15 nt to about 50 nt, from about 15 nt to about 40 nt, from about 15 nt to about
  • the 3' tracrRNA sequence can be at least about 60% identical to a reference 3' tracrRNA sequence (e.g., wild type 3' tracrRNA sequence from S. pyogenes ) over a stretch of at least 6, 7, or 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • the 3' tracrRNA sequence can be at least about 60% identical, about 65% identical, about 70% identical, about 75% identical, about 80% identical, about 85% identical, about 90% identical, about 95% identical, about 98% identical, about 99% identical, or 100% identical, to a reference 3' tracrRNA sequence (e.g ., wild type 3' tracrRNA sequence from S. pyogenes ) over a stretch of at least 6, 7, or 8 contiguous nucleotides.
  • a reference 3' tracrRNA sequence e.g ., wild type 3' tracrRNA sequence from S. pyogenes
  • the 3' tracrRNA sequence can comprise more than one duplexed region (e.g. , hairpin, hybridized region).
  • the 3' tracrRNA sequence can comprise two duplexed regions.
  • the 3' tracrRNA sequence can comprise a stem loop structure.
  • the stem loop structure in the 3' tracrRNA can comprise at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 or 20 or more nucleotides.
  • the stem loop structure in the 3' tracrRNA can comprise at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 or more nucleotides.
  • the stem loop structure can comprise a functional moiety.
  • the stem loop structure can comprise an aptamer, a ribozyme, a protein-interacting hairpin, a CRISPR array, an intron, or an exon.
  • the stem loop structure can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or more functional moieties.
  • the stem loop structure can comprise at most about 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or more functional moieties.
  • the hairpin in the 3' tracrRNA sequence can comprise a P-domain.
  • the P-domain can comprise a double-stranded region in the hairpin.
  • a tracrRNA extension sequence may be provided whether the tracrRNA is in the context of single-molecule guides or double-molecule guides.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can have a length from about 1 nucleotide to about 400 nucleotides.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can have a length of more than 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, or 400 nucleotides.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can have a length from about 20 to about 5000 or more nucleotides.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can have a length of more than 1000 nucleotides.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can have a length of less than 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, 400 or more nucleotides.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can have a length of less than 1000 nucleotides.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can comprise less than 10 nucleotides in length.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can be 10-30 nucleotides in length.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can be 30-70 nucleotides in length.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can comprise a functional moiety (e.g., a stability control sequence, ribozyme, endoribonuclease binding sequence).
  • the functional moiety can comprise a transcriptional terminator segment (i.e., a transcription termination sequence).
  • the functional moiety can have a total length from about 10 nucleotides (nt) to about 100 nucleotides, from about 10 nt to about 20 nt, from about 20 nt to about 30 nt, from about 30 nt to about 40 nt, from about 40 nt to about 50 nt, from about 50 nt to about 60 nt, from about 60 nt to about 70 nt, from about 70 nt to about 80 nt, from about 80 nt to about 90 nt, or from about 90 nt to about 100 nt, from about 15 nt to about 80 nt, from about 15 nt to about 50 nt, from about 15 nt to about 40 nt, from about 15 nt to about 30 nt, or from about 15 nt to about 25 nt.
  • the functional moiety can function in a eukaryotic cell.
  • the functional moiety can function in a prokaryotic cell.
  • Non-limiting examples of suitable tracrRNA extension functional moieties include a 3' poly-adenylated tail, a riboswitch sequence (e.g., to allow for regulated stability and/or regulated accessibility by proteins and protein complexes), a sequence that forms a dsRNA duplex ( i.e., a hairpin), a sequence that targets the RNA to a subcellular location ( e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like), a modification or sequence that provides for tracking (e.g., direct conjugation to a fluorescent molecule, conjugation to a moiety that facilitates fluorescent detection, a sequence that allows for fluorescent detection, etc.), and/or a modification or sequence that provides a binding site for proteins (e.g.
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can comprise a primer binding site or a molecular index (e.g. , barcode sequence).
  • the tracrRNA extension sequence can comprise one or more affinity tags.
  • the linker sequence of a single-molecule guide nucleic acid can have a length from about 3 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides.
  • a simple 4 nucleotide "tetraloop" (-GAAA-) was used, Science, 337(6096):816-821 (2012 ).
  • An illustrative linker has a length from about 3 nucleotides (nt) to about 90 nt, from about 3 nt to about 80 nt, from about 3 nt to about 70 nt, from about 3 nt to about 60 nt, from about 3 nt to about 50 nt, from about 3 nt to about 40 nt, from about 3 nt to about 30 nt, from about 3 nt to about 20 nt, from about 3 nt to about 10 nt.
  • nt nucleotides
  • the linker can have a length from about 3 nt to about 5 nt, from about 5 nt to about 10 nt, from about 10 nt to about 15 nt, from about 15 nt to about 20 nt, from about 20 nt to about 25 nt, from about 25 nt to about 30 nt, from about 30 nt to about 35 nt, from about 35 nt to about 40 nt, from about 40 nt to about 50 nt, from about 50 nt to about 60 nt, from about 60 nt to about 70 nt, from about 70 nt to about 80 nt, from about 80 nt to about 90 nt, or from about 90 nt to about 100 nt.
  • the linker of a single-molecule guide nucleic acid can be between 4 and 40 nucleotides.
  • the linker can be at least about 100, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000, 5500, 6000, 6500, or 7000 or more nucleotides.
  • the linker can be at most about 100, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000, 5500, 6000, 6500, or 7000 or more nucleotides.
  • Linkers can comprise any of a variety of sequences, although in some examples the linker will not comprise sequences that have extensive regions of homology with other portions of the guide RNA, which might cause intramolecular binding that could interfere with other functional regions of the guide.
  • a simple 4 nucleotide sequence -GAAA- was used, Science, 337(6096):816-821 (2012 ), but numerous other sequences, including longer sequences can likewise be used.
  • the linker sequence can comprise a functional moiety.
  • the linker sequence can comprise one or more features, including an aptamer, a ribozyme, a protein-interacting hairpin, a protein binding site, a CRISPR array, an intron, or an exon.
  • the linker sequence can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or more functional moieties. In some examples, the linker sequence can comprise at most about 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 or more functional moieties.
  • polynucleotides introduced into cells can comprise one or more modifications that can be used individually or in combination, for example, to enhance activity, stability or specificity, alter delivery, reduce innate immune responses in host cells, or for other enhancements, as further described herein and known in the art.
  • modified polynucleotides can be used in the CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpfl system, in which case the guide RNAs (either single-molecule guides or double-molecule guides) and/or a DNA or an RNA encoding a Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease introduced into a cell can be modified, as described and illustrated below.
  • modified polynucleotides can be used in the CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpfl system to edit any one or more genomic loci.
  • modifications of guide RNAs can be used to enhance the formation or stability of the CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpfl genome editing complex comprising guide RNAs, which can be single-molecule guides or double-molecule, and a Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease.
  • Modifications of guide RNAs can also or alternatively be used to enhance the initiation, stability or kinetics of interactions between the genome editing complex with the target sequence in the genome, which can be used, for example, to enhance on-target activity.
  • Modifications of guide RNAs can also or alternatively be used to enhance specificity, e.g. , the relative rates of genome editing at the on-target site as compared to effects at other (off-target) sites.
  • Modifications can also or alternatively be used to increase the stability of a guide RNA, e.g., by increasing its resistance to degradation by ribonucleases (RNases) present in a cell, thereby causing its half-life in the cell to be increased.
  • RNases ribonucleases
  • Modifications enhancing guide RNA half-life can be particularly useful in aspects in which a Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease is introduced into the cell to be edited via an RNA that needs to be translated in order to generate endonuclease, because increasing the half-life of guide RNAs introduced at the same time as the RNA encoding the endonuclease can be used to increase the time that the guide RNAs and the encoded Cas9 or Cpfl endonuclease co-exist in the cell.
  • RNA interference including small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs), as described below and in the art, tend to be associated with reduced half-life of the RNA and/or the elicitation of cytokines or other factors associated with immune responses.
  • RNAs encoding an endonuclease that are introduced into a cell including, without limitation, modifications that enhance the stability of the RNA (such as by increasing its degradation by RNases present in the cell), modifications that enhance translation of the resulting product (i.e. the endonuclease), and/or modifications that decrease the likelihood or degree to which the RNAs introduced into cells elicit innate immune responses.
  • modifications such as the foregoing and others, can likewise be used.
  • CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpfl for example, one or more types of modifications can be made to guide RNAs (including those exemplified above), and/or one or more types of modifications can be made to RNAs encoding Cas endonuclease (including those exemplified above).
  • guide RNAs used in the CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpfl system can be readily synthesized by chemical means, enabling a number of modifications to be readily incorporated, as illustrated below and described in the art. While chemical synthetic procedures are continually expanding, purifications of such RNAs by procedures such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, which avoids the use of gels such as PAGE) tends to become more challenging as polynucleotide lengths increase significantly beyond a hundred or so nucleotides.
  • HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
  • One approach that can be used for generating chemically-modified RNAs of greater length is to produce two or more molecules that are ligated together.
  • RNAs such as those encoding a Cas9 endonuclease
  • RNAs are more readily generated enzymatically. While fewer types of modifications are available for use in enzymatically produced RNAs, there are still modifications that can be used to, e.g., enhance stability, reduce the likelihood or degree of innate immune response, and/or enhance other attributes, as described further below and in the art; and new types of modifications are regularly being developed.
  • modifications can comprise one or more nucleotides modified at the 2' position of the sugar, in some aspects a 2'-O-alkyl, 2'-O-alkyl-O-alkyl, or 2'-fluoro-modified nucleotide.
  • RNA modifications include 2'-fluoro, 2'-amino or 2'-O-methyl modifications on the ribose of pyrimidines, abasic residues, or an inverted base at the 3' end of the RNA.
  • modified oligonucleotides include those comprising modified backbones, for example, phosphorothioates, phosphotriesters, methyl phosphonates, short chain alkyl or cycloalkyl intersugar linkages or short chain heteroatomic or heterocyclic intersugar linkages.
  • oligonucleotides are oligonucleotides with phosphorothioate backbones and those with heteroatom backbones, particularly CH 2 -NH-O-CH 2 , CH, ⁇ N(CH 3 ) ⁇ O ⁇ CH 2 (known as a methylene(methylimino) or MMI backbone), CH 2 -O-N (CH 3 )-CH 2 , CH 2 -N (CH 3 )-N (CH 3 )-CH 2 and O-N (CH 3 )- CH 2 -CH 2 backbones, wherein the native phosphodiester backbone is represented as O- P- O- CH,); amide backbones [see De Mesmaeker et al., Ace. Chem.
  • morpholino backbone structures see Summerton and Weller, U.S. Patent No. 5,034,506 ; peptide nucleic acid (PNA) backbone (wherein the phosphodiester backbone of the oligonucleotide is replaced with a polyamide backbone, the nucleotides being bound directly or indirectly to the aza nitrogen atoms of the polyamide backbone, see Nielsen et al., Science 1991, 254, 1497 ).
  • PNA peptide nucleic acid
  • Phosphorus-containing linkages include, but are not limited to, phosphorothioates, chiral phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, phosphotriesters, aminoalkylphosphotriesters, methyl and other alkyl phosphonates comprising 3'alkylene phosphonates and chiral phosphonates, phosphinates, phosphoramidates comprising 3'-amino phosphoramidate and aminoalkylphosphoramidates, thionophosphoramidates, thionoalkylphosphonates, thionoalkylphosphotriesters, and boranophosphates having normal 3'-5' linkages, 2'-5' linked analogs of these, and those having inverted polarity wherein the adjacent pairs of nucleoside units are linked 3'-5' to 5'-3' or 2'-5' to 5'-2'; see U.S.
  • Morpholino-based oligomeric compounds are described in Braasch and David Corey, Biochemistry, 41(14): 4503-4510 (2002 ); Genesis, Volume 30, Issue 3, (2001 ); Heasman, Dev. Biol., 243: 209-214 (2002 ); Nasevicius et al., Nat. Genet., 26:216-220 (2000 ); Lacerra et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 97: 9591-9596 (2000 ); and U.S. Patent No. 5,034,506, issued Jul. 23, 1991 .
  • Cyclohexenyl nucleic acid oligonucleotide mimetics are described in Wang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 122: 8595-8602 (2000 ).
  • Modified oligonucleotide backbones that do not include a phosphorus atom therein have backbones that are formed by short chain alkyl or cycloalkyl internucleoside linkages, mixed heteroatom and alkyl or cycloalkyl internucleoside linkages, or one or more short chain heteroatomic or heterocyclic internucleoside linkages.
  • These comprise those having morpholino linkages (formed in part from the sugar portion of a nucleoside); siloxane backbones; sulfide, sulfoxide and sulfone backbones; formacetyl and thioformacetyl backbones; methylene formacetyl and thioformacetyl backbones; alkene containing backbones; sulfamate backbones; methyleneimino and methylenehydrazino backbones; sulfonate and sulfonamide backbones; amide backbones; and others having mixed N, O, S, and CH 2 component parts; see U.S. Patent Nos.
  • One or more substituted sugar moieties can also be included, e.g., one of the following at the 2' position: OH, SH, SCH 3 , F, OCN, OCH 3 OCH 3 , OCH 3 O(CH 2 )n CH 3 , O(CH 2 )n NH 2 , or O(CH 2 )n CH 3 , where n is from 1 to about 10; C1 to C10 lower alkyl, alkoxyalkoxy, substituted lower alkyl, alkaryl or aralkyl; Cl; Br; CN; CF 3 ; OCF 3 ; O-, S-, or N-alkyl; O-, S-, or N-alkenyl; SOCH 3 ; SO 2 CH 3 ; ONO 2 ; NO 2 ; N 3 ; NH 2 ; heterocycloalkyl; heterocycloalkaryl; aminoalkylamino; polyalkylamino; substituted silyl; an RNA cleaving group; a reporter
  • a modification includes 2'-methoxyethoxy (2'-O-CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , also known as 2'-O-(2-methoxyethyl)) ( Martin et al, HeIv. Chim. Acta, 1995, 78, 486 ).
  • Other modifications include 2'-methoxy (2'-O-CH 3 ), 2'-propoxy (2'-OCH 2 CH 2 CH 3 ) and 2'-fluoro (2'-F).
  • Similar modifications may also be made at other positions on the oligonucleotide, particularly the 3' position of the sugar on the 3' terminal nucleotide and the 5' position of 5' terminal nucleotide.
  • Oligonucleotides may also have sugar mimetics, such as cyclobutyls in place of the pentofuranosyl group.
  • both a sugar and an internucleoside linkage, i.e., the backbone, of the nucleotide units can be replaced with novel groups.
  • the base units can be maintained for hybridization with an appropriate nucleic acid target compound.
  • an oligomeric compound an oligonucleotide mimetic that has been shown to have excellent hybridization properties, is referred to as a peptide nucleic acid (PNA).
  • PNA peptide nucleic acid
  • the sugar-backbone of an oligonucleotide can be replaced with an amide containing backbone, for example, an aminoethylglycine backbone.
  • the nucleobases can be retained and bound directly or indirectly to aza nitrogen atoms of the amide portion of the backbone.
  • Guide RNAs can also include, additionally or alternatively, nucleobase (often referred to in the art simply as “base”) modifications or substitutions.
  • nucleobase often referred to in the art simply as “base” modifications or substitutions.
  • “unmodified” or “natural” nucleobases include adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and uracil (U).
  • Modified nucleobases include nucleobases found only infrequently or transiently in natural nucleic acids, e.g.
  • hypoxanthine 6-methyladenine
  • 5-Me pyrimidines particularly 5-methylcytosine (also referred to as 5-methyl-2' deoxycytosine and often referred to in the art as 5-Me-C), 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (HMC), glycosyl HMC and gentobiosyl HMC, as well as synthetic nucleobases, e.g.
  • 2-aminoadenine 2-(methylamino) adenine, 2-(imidazolylalkyl)adenine, 2-(aminoalklyamino) adenine or other heterosubstituted alkyladenines, 2-thiouracil, 2-thiothymine, 5-bromouracil, 5-hydroxymethyluracil, 8-azaguanine, 7-deazaguanine, N6 (6-aminohexyl) adenine, and 2,6-diaminopurine. Kornberg, A., DNA Replication, W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, pp. 75-77 (1980 ); Gebeyehu et al., Nucl. Acids Res.
  • a "universal" base known in the art e.g., inosine, can also be included.
  • 5-Me-C substitutions have been shown to increase nucleic acid duplex stability by 0.6-1.2 °C. ( Sanghvi, Y. S., in Crooke, S. T. and Lebleu, B., eds., Antisense Research and Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1993, pp. 276-278 ) and are aspects of base substitutions.
  • Modified nucleobases can comprise other synthetic and natural nucleobases, such as 5-methylcytosine (5-me-C), 5-hydroxymethyl cytosine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, 2-aminoadenine, 6-methyl and other alkyl derivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-propyl and other alkyl derivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-thiouracil, 2-thiothymine and 2-thiocytosine, 5-halouracil and cytosine, 5-propynyl uracil and cytosine, 6-azo uracil, cytosine and thymine, 5-uracil (pseudo-uracil), 4-thiouracil, 8-halo, 8-amino, 8-thiol, 8- thioalkyl, 8-hydroxyl and other 8-substituted adenines and guanines, 5-halo particularly 5- bromo, 5-trifluoromethyl and other
  • nucleobases can comprise those disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 3,687,808 , those disclosed in 'The Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science And Engineering', pages 858-859, Kroschwitz, J.I., ed. John Wiley & Sons, 1990 , those disclosed by Englisch et al., Angewandle Chemie, International Edition', 1991, 30, page 613 , and those disclosed by Sanghvi, Y. S., Chapter 15, Antisense Research and Applications', pages 289- 302, Crooke, S.T. and Lebleu, B. ea., CRC Press, 1993 . Certain of these nucleobases are particularly useful for increasing the binding affinity of the oligomeric compounds of the present disclosure.
  • 5-substituted pyrimidines 6-azapyrimidines and N-2, N-6 and 0-6 substituted purines, comprising 2-aminopropyladenine, 5-propynyluracil and 5-propynylcytosine.
  • 5-methylcytosine substitutions have been shown to increase nucleic acid duplex stability by 0.6-1.2°C ( Sanghvi, Y.S., Crooke, S.T. and Lebleu, B., eds, 'Antisense Research and Applications', CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1993, pp. 276-278 ) and are aspects of base substitutions, even more particularly when combined with 2'-O-methoxyethyl sugar modifications.
  • Modified nucleobases are described in U.S. Patent Nos. 3,687,808 , as well as 4,845,205 ; 5,130,302 ; 5,134,066 ; 5,175,273 ; 5,367,066 ; 5,432,272 ; 5,457,187 ; 5,459,255 ; 5,484,908 ; 5,502,177 ; 5,525,711 ; 5,552,540 ; 5,587,469 ; 5,596,091 ; 5,614,617 ; 5,681,941 ; 5,750,692 ; 5,763,588 ; 5,830,653 ; 6,005,096 ; and U.S. Patent Application Publication 2003/0158403 .
  • modified refers to a non-natural sugar, phosphate, or base that is incorporated into a guide RNA, an endonuclease, or both a guide RNA and an endonuclease. It is not necessary for all positions in a given oligonucleotide to be uniformly modified, and in fact more than one of the aforementioned modifications can be incorporated in a single oligonucleotide, or even in a single nucleoside within an oligonucleotide.
  • the guide RNAs and/or mRNA (or DNA) encoding an endonuclease can be chemically linked to one or more moieties or conjugates that enhance the activity, cellular distribution, or cellular uptake of the oligonucleotide.
  • moieties comprise, but are not limited to, lipid moieties such as a cholesterol moiety [ Letsinger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 86: 6553-6556 (1989 )]; cholic acid [ Manoharan et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem.
  • Sugars and other moieties can be used to target proteins and complexes comprising nucleotides, such as cationic polysomes and liposomes, to particular sites.
  • nucleotides such as cationic polysomes and liposomes
  • hepatic cell directed transfer can be mediated via asialoglycoprotein receptors (ASGPRs); see, e.g., Hu, et al., Protein Pept Lett. 21(10):1025-30 (2014 ).
  • GSGPRs asialoglycoprotein receptors
  • Other systems known in the art and regularly developed can be used to target biomolecules of use in the present case and/or complexes thereof to particular target cells of interest.
  • targeting moieties or conjugates can include conjugate groups covalently bound to functional groups, such as primary or secondary hydroxyl groups.
  • Conjugate groups of the present disclosure include intercalators, reporter molecules, polyamines, polyamides, polyethylene glycols, polyethers, groups that enhance the pharmacodynamic properties of oligomers, and groups that enhance the pharmacokinetic properties of oligomers.
  • Typical conjugate groups include cholesterols, lipids, phospholipids, biotin, phenazine, folate, phenanthridine, anthraquinone, acridine, fluoresceins, rhodamines, coumarins, and dyes.
  • Groups that enhance the pharmacodynamic properties include groups that improve uptake, enhance resistance to degradation, and/or strengthen sequence-specific hybridization with the target nucleic acid.
  • Groups that enhance the pharmacokinetic properties include groups that improve uptake, distribution, metabolism or excretion of the compounds of the present disclosure. Representative conjugate groups are disclosed in International Patent Application No. PCT/US92/09196, filed Oct. 23, 1992 (published as WO1993007883 ), and U.S. Patent No. 6,287,860 .
  • Conjugate moieties include, but are not limited to, lipid moieties such as a cholesterol moiety, cholic acid, a thioether, e.g., hexyl-5-tritylthiol, a thiocholesterol, an aliphatic chain, e.g., dodecandiol or undecyl residues, a phospholipid, e.g.
  • di-hexadecyl-rac- glycerol or triethylammonium 1,2-di-O-hexadecyl-rac-glycero-3-H-phosphonate a polyamine or a polyethylene glycol chain, or adamantane acetic acid, a palmityl moiety, or an octadecylamine or hexylamino-carbonyl-oxy cholesterol moiety. See, e.g., U.S. Patent Nos.
  • Longer polynucleotides that are less amenable to chemical synthesis and are typically produced by enzymatic synthesis can also be modified by various means. Such modifications can include, for example, the introduction of certain nucleotide analogs, the incorporation of particular sequences or other moieties at the 5' or 3' ends of molecules, and other modifications.
  • the mRNA encoding Cas9 is approximately 4 kb in length and can be synthesized by in vitro transcription.
  • Modifications to the mRNA can be applied to, e.g., increase its translation or stability (such as by increasing its resistance to degradation with a cell), or to reduce the tendency of the RNA to elicit an innate immune response that is often observed in cells following introduction of exogenous RNAs, particularly longer RNAs such as that encoding Cas9.
  • TriLink can be used to impart desirable characteristics, such as increased nuclease stability, increased translation or reduced interaction of innate immune receptors with in vitro transcribed RNA.
  • 5-Methylcytidine-5'-Triphosphate 5-Methyl-CTP
  • N6-Methyl-ATP 5-Methyl-ATP
  • Pseudo-UTP and 2-Thio-UTP have also been shown to reduce innate immune stimulation in culture and in vivo while enhancing translation, as illustrated in publications by Kormann et al. and Warren et al. referred to below.
  • iPSCs induced pluripotency stem cells
  • RNA incorporating 5-Methyl-CTP, Pseudo-UTP and an Anti Reverse Cap Analog (ARCA) could be used to effectively evade the cell's antiviral response; see, e.g., Warren et al., supra.
  • polynucleotides described in the art include, for example, the use of polyA tails, the addition of 5' cap analogs (such as m7G(5')ppp(5')G (mCAP)), modifications of 5' or 3' untranslated regions (UTRs), or treatment with phosphatase to remove 5' terminal phosphates - and new approaches are regularly being developed.
  • 5' cap analogs such as m7G(5')ppp(5')G (mCAP)
  • UTRs untranslated regions
  • treatment with phosphatase to remove 5' terminal phosphates - and new approaches are regularly being developed.
  • RNA interference including small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs).
  • siRNAs present particular challenges in vivo because their effects on gene silencing via mRNA interference are generally transient, which can require repeat administration.
  • siRNAs are double-stranded RNAs (dsRNA) and mammalian cells have immune responses that have evolved to detect and neutralize dsRNA, which is often a by-product of viral infection.
  • dsRNA double-stranded RNAs
  • mammalian cells have immune responses that have evolved to detect and neutralize dsRNA, which is often a by-product of viral infection.
  • PKR dsRNA-responsive kinase
  • RIG-I retinoic acid-inducible gene I
  • TLR3, TLR7 and TLR8 Toll-like receptors
  • RNAs As noted above, there are a number of commercial suppliers of modified RNAs, many of which have specialized in modifications designed to improve the effectiveness of siRNAs. A variety of approaches are offered based on various findings reported in the literature. For example, Dharmacon notes that replacement of a non-bridging oxygen with sulfur (phosphorothioate, PS) has been extensively used to improve nuclease resistance of siRNAs, as reported by Kole, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 11:125-140 (2012 ). Modifications of the 2'-position of the ribose have been reported to improve nuclease resistance of the internucleotide phosphate bond while increasing duplex stability (Tm), which has also been shown to provide protection from immune activation.
  • PS phosphorothioate
  • RNAs can enhance their delivery and/or uptake by cells, including for example, cholesterol, tocopherol and folic acid, lipids, peptides, polymers, linkers and aptamers; see, e.g., the review by Winkler, Ther. Deliv. 4:791-809 (2013 ), and references cited therein.
  • a polynucleotide encoding a site-directed polypeptide can be codon-optimized according to methods standard in the art for expression in the cell containing the target DNA of interest. For example, if the intended target nucleic acid is in a human cell, a human codon-optimized polynucleotide encoding Cas9 is contemplated for use for producing the Cas9 polypeptide.
  • a genome-targeting nucleic acid interacts with a site-directed polypeptide (e.g., a nucleic acid-guided nuclease such as Cas9), thereby forming a complex.
  • the genome-targeting nucleic acid guides the site-directed polypeptide to a target nucleic acid.
  • RNPs Ribonucleoprotein complexes
  • the site-directed polypeptide and genome-targeting nucleic acid can each be administered separately to a cell or a patient.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can be pre-complexed with one or more guide RNAs, or one or more crRNA together with a tracrRNA.
  • the pre-complexed material can then be administered to a cell or a patient.
  • Such pre-complexed material is known as a ribonucleoprotein particle (RNP).
  • the site-directed polypeptide in the RNP can be, for example, a Cas9 endonuclease or a Cpfl endonuclease.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can be flanked at the N-terminus, the C-terminus, or both the N-terminus and C-terminus by one or more nuclear localization signals (NLSs).
  • NLSs nuclear localization signals
  • a Cas9 endonuclease can be flanked by two NLSs, one NLS located at the N-terminus and the second NLS located at the C-terminus.
  • the NLS can be any NLS known in the art, such as a SV40 NLS.
  • the weight ratio of genome-targeting nucleic acid to site-directed polypeptide in the RNP can be 1:1.
  • the weight ratio of sgRNA to Cas9 endonuclease in the RNP can be 1:1.
  • the present disclosure provides a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a genome-targeting nucleic acid of the disclosure, a site-directed polypeptide of the disclosure, and/or any nucleic acid or proteinaceous molecule necessary to carry out the aspects of the methods of the disclosure.
  • the nucleic acid encoding a genome-targeting nucleic acid of the disclosure, a site-directed polypeptide of the disclosure, and/or any nucleic acid or proteinaceous molecule necessary to carry out the aspects of the methods of the disclosure can comprise a vector (e.g., a recombinant expression vector).
  • vector refers to a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acid to which it has been linked.
  • plasmid refers to a circular double-stranded DNA loop into which additional nucleic acid segments can be ligated.
  • viral vector Another type of vector is a viral vector, wherein additional nucleic acid segments can be ligated into the viral genome.
  • Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g ., bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors).
  • Other vectors e.g ., non-episomal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome.
  • vectors can be capable of directing the expression of nucleic acids to which they are operatively linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as “recombinant expression vectors", or more simply “expression vectors”, which serve equivalent functions.
  • operably linked means that the nucleotide sequence of interest is linked to regulatory sequence(s) in a manner that allows for expression of the nucleotide sequence.
  • regulatory sequence is intended to include, for example, promoters, enhancers and other expression control elements (e.g. , polyadenylation signals). Such regulatory sequences are well known in the art and are described, for example, in Goeddel; Gene Expression Technology: Methods in Enzymology 185, Academic Press, San Diego, CA (1990 ).
  • Regulatory sequences include those that direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence in many types of host cells, and those that direct expression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory sequences). It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the target cell, the level of expression desired, and the like.
  • Expression vectors contemplated include, but are not limited to, viral vectors based on vaccinia virus, poliovirus, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, SV40, herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus, retrovirus (e.g ., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myeloproliferative sarcoma virus, and mammary tumor virus) and other recombinant vectors.
  • retrovirus e.g ., Murine Leukemia Virus, spleen necrosis virus, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous Sarcoma Virus, Harvey Sarcoma Virus, avian leukosis virus, a lentivirus, human immunodeficiency virus, myelop
  • vectors contemplated for eukaryotic target cells include, but are not limited to, the vectors pXT1, pSG5, pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG, and pSVLSV40 (Pharmacia). Other vectors can be used so long as they are compatible with the host cell.
  • a vector can comprise one or more transcription and/or translation control elements.
  • any of a number of suitable transcription and translation control elements including constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancer elements, transcription terminators, etc. can be used in the expression vector.
  • the vector can be a self-inactivating vector that either inactivates the viral sequences or the components of the CRISPR machinery or other elements.
  • Non-limiting examples of suitable eukaryotic promoters include those from cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate early, herpes simplex virus (HSV) thymidine kinase, early and late SV40, long terminal repeats (LTRs) from retrovirus, human elongation factor-1 promoter (EF1), a hybrid construct comprising the cytomegalovirus (CMV) enhancer fused to the chicken beta-actin promoter (CAG), murine stem cell virus promoter (MSCV), phosphoglycerate kinase-1 locus promoter (PGK), and mouse metallothionein-I.
  • CMV cytomegalovirus
  • HSV herpes simplex virus
  • LTRs long terminal repeats
  • EF1 human elongation factor-1 promoter
  • CAG chicken beta-actin promoter
  • MSCV murine stem cell virus promoter
  • PGK phosphoglycerate kinase-1 locus promoter
  • RNA polymerase III promoters for example U6 and HI
  • descriptions of and parameters for enhancing the use of such promoters are known in art, and additional information and approaches are regularly being described; see, e.g., Ma, H. et al., Molecular Therapy - Nucleic Acids 3, e161 (2014) doi:10.1038/mtna.2014.12 .
  • the expression vector can also contain a ribosome binding site for translation initiation and a transcription terminator.
  • the expression vector can also comprise appropriate sequences for amplifying expression.
  • the expression vector can also include nucleotide sequences encoding non-native tags (e.g. , histidine tag, hemagglutinin tag, green fluorescent protein, etc.) that are fused to the site-directed polypeptide, thus resulting in a fusion protein.
  • a promoter can be an inducible promoter (e.g., a heat shock promoter, tetracycline-regulated promoter, steroid-regulated promoter, metal-regulated promoter, estrogen receptor-regulated promoter, etc.).
  • the promoter can be a constitutive promoter ( e.g. , CMV promoter, UBC promoter).
  • the promoter can be a spatially restricted and/or temporally restricted promoter (e.g. , a tissue specific promoter, a cell type specific promoter, etc.).
  • nucleic acid encoding a genome-targeting nucleic acid of the disclosure and/or a site-directed polypeptide can be packaged into or on the surface of delivery vehicles for delivery to cells.
  • Delivery vehicles contemplated include, but are not limited to, nanospheres, liposomes, quantum dots, nanoparticles, polyethylene glycol particles, hydrogels, and micelles.
  • targeting moieties can be used to enhance the preferential interaction of such vehicles with desired cell types or locations.
  • Introduction of the complexes, polypeptides, and nucleic acids of the disclosure into cells can occur by viral or bacteriophage infection, transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion, lipofection, electroporation, nucleofection, calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-mediated transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, liposome-mediated transfection, particle gun technology, calcium phosphate precipitation, direct micro-injection, nanoparticle-mediated nucleic acid delivery, and the like.
  • PEI polyethyleneimine
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • SCA2 is caused by abnormal expansion of a trinucleotide CAG repeat in exon 1 of the ATXN2 gene.
  • the CAG segment is repeated 22 to 23 times, but it can be repeated up to 31 times without causing any symptoms.
  • the number of CAG repeats can range from 32 to more than 100 repeats. This number can be different from one SCA2 patient to another.
  • CAG repeats occurring greater than 24 times has been associated with the risk of developing ALS. More specifically, CAG repeats occurring in the range 29 to 33 have been associated with ALS. This number can be different from one ALS patient to another.
  • trinucleotide repeat expansion means a series of three bases (for example, CAG) repeated at least twice.
  • the trinucleotide repeat expansion may be located in exon 1 of an ATXN2 nucleic acid.
  • a pathogenic trinucleotide repeat expansion includes at least 32 repeats of CAG in an ATXN2 nucleic acid and is associated with disease.
  • a pathogenic trinucleotide repeat expansion includes at least 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100 or more repeats.
  • the repeats are consecutive.
  • the repeats are interrupted by 1 or more nucleobases.
  • a wild-type trinucleotide repeat expansion includes 31 or fewer repeats of CAG in an ATXN2 nucleic acid.
  • a wild-type trinucleotide repeat expansion includes at most 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 15, or 10 repeats.
  • the entire trinucleotide repeat expansion is deleted. In other examples, a portion of the trinucleotide repeat expansion is deleted.
  • An aspect of such method is an ex vivo cell-based therapy.
  • a biopsy of the patient's brain is performed.
  • cells of the central nervous system e.g., neurons or glial cells
  • the chromosomal DNA of the cells of the central nervous system e.g., neurons or glial cells
  • the edited cells of the central nervous system are implanted into the patient. Any source or type of cell may be used as the progenitor cell.
  • a patient specific induced pluripotent stem cell iPSC
  • the chromosomal DNA of these iPSC cells can be edited using the materials and methods described herein.
  • the genome-edited iPSCs can be differentiated into cells of the central nervous system (e.g., neurons or glial cells). Finally, the differentiated cells are implanted into the patient.
  • a mesenchymal stem cell can be isolated from the patient, which can be isolated from the patient's bone marrow or peripheral blood.
  • the chromosomal DNA of these mesenchymal stem cells can be edited using the materials and methods described herein.
  • the genome-edited mesenchymal stem cells can be differentiated into cells of the central nervous system (e.g., neurons or glial cells).
  • the differentiated cells e.g., cells of the central nervous system (e.g., neurons or glial cells) are implanted into the patient.
  • Nuclease-based therapeutics can have some level of off-target effects.
  • Performing gene editing ex vivo allows one to characterize the edited cell population prior to implantation.
  • the present disclosure includes sequencing the entire genome of the edited cells to ensure that the off-target effects, if any, can be in genomic locations associated with minimal risk to the patient.
  • populations of specific cells, including clonal populations can be isolated prior to implantation.
  • iPSCs are prolific, making it easy to obtain the large number of cells that will be required for a cell-based therapy.
  • iPSCs are an ideal cell type for performing clonal isolations. This allows screening for the correct genomic modification, without risking a decrease in viability.
  • other primary cells such as glial cells, are viable for only a few passages and difficult to clonally expand.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • Methods can also include an in vivo based therapy. Chromosomal DNA of the cells in the patient is edited using the materials and methods described herein.
  • the target cell in an in vivo based therapy is a cell of the central nervous system (e.g., a neuron or a glial cell).
  • RNA and protein remain in the cell can also be adjusted using treatments or domains added to change the half-life.
  • In vivo treatment would eliminate a number of treatment steps, but a lower rate of delivery can require higher rates of editing.
  • In vivo treatment can eliminate problems and losses from ex vivo treatment and engraftment and post-engraftment integration of neurons and glial cells appropriately into existing brain circuits.
  • An advantage of in vivo gene therapy can be the ease of therapeutic production and administration.
  • the same therapeutic approach and therapy will have the potential to be used to treat more than one patient, for example a number of patients who share the same or similar genotype or allele.
  • ex vivo cell therapy typically requires using a patient's own cells, which are isolated, manipulated and returned to the same patient.
  • a cell can be isolated from a patient or animal. Then, the chromosomal DNA of the cell can be edited using the materials and methods described herein.
  • microRNAs miRNAs
  • miRNAs are non-coding RNAs that play key roles in posttranscriptional gene regulation. miRNA can regulate the expression of 30% of all mammalian protein-encoding genes. Specific and potent gene silencing by double stranded RNA (RNAi) was discovered, plus additional small non-coding RNA ( Canver, M.C. et al., Nature (2015 )). The largest class of non-coding RNAs important for gene silencing is miRNAs. In mammals, miRNAs are first transcribed as a long RNA transcript, which can be separate transcriptional units, part of protein introns, or other transcripts.
  • the long transcripts are called primary miRNA (pri-miRNA) that include imperfectly base-paired hairpin structures. These pri-miRNA can be cleaved into one or more shorter precursor miRNAs (pre-miRNAs) by Microprocessor, a protein complex in the nucleus, involving Drosha.
  • pri-miRNA primary miRNA
  • pre-miRNAs shorter precursor miRNAs
  • Pre-miRNAs are short stem loops ⁇ 70 nucleotides in length with a 2-nucleotide 3'-overhang that are exported, into the mature 19-25 nucleotide miRNA:miRNA ⁇ duplexes.
  • the miRNA strand with lower base pairing stability (the guide strand) can be loaded onto the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).
  • the passenger strand (marked with ⁇ ), can be functional, but is usually degraded.
  • miRNAs can be important in development, differentiation, cell cycle and growth control, and in virtually all biological pathways in mammals and other multicellular organisms. miRNAs can also be involved in cell cycle control, apoptosis and stem cell differentiation, hematopoiesis, hypoxia, muscle development, neurogenesis, insulin secretion, cholesterol metabolism, aging, viral replication and immune responses.
  • a single miRNA can target hundreds of different mRNA transcripts, while an individual miRNA transcript can be targeted by many different miRNAs. More than 28645 microRNAs have been annotated in the latest release of miRBase (v.21). Some miRNAs can be encoded by multiple loci, some of which can be expressed from tandemly co-transcribed clusters. The features allow for complex regulatory networks with multiple pathways and feedback controls. miRNAs can be integral parts of these feedback and regulatory circuits and can help regulate gene expression by keeping protein production within limits ( Herranz, H. & Cohen, S.M. Genes Dev 24, 1339-1344 (2010 ); Posadas, D.M. & Carthew, R.W. Curr Opin Genet Dev 27, 1-6 (2014 )).
  • miRNA can also be important in a large number of human diseases that are associated with abnormal miRNA expression. This association underscores the importance of the miRNA regulatory pathway. Recent miRNA deletion studies have linked miRNA with regulation of the immune responses ( Stern-Ginossar, N. et al., Science 317, 376-381 (2007 )).
  • miRNA also has a strong link to cancer and can play a role in different types of cancer. miRNAs have been found to be downregulated in a number of tumors. miRNA can be important in the regulation of key cancer-related pathways, such as cell cycle control and the DNA damage response, and can therefore be used in diagnosis and can be targeted clinically. MicroRNAs can delicately regulate the balance of angiogenesis, such that experiments depleting all microRNAs suppresses tumor angiogenesis ( Chen, S. et al., Genes Dev 28, 1054-1067 (2014 )).
  • miRNA genes can also be subject to epigenetic changes occurring with cancer. Many miRNA loci can be associated with CpG islands increasing their opportunity for regulation by DNA methylation ( Weber, B., Stresemann, C., Brueckner, B. & Lyko, F. Cell Cycle 6, 1001-1005 (2007 )). The majority of studies have used treatment with chromatin remodeling drugs to reveal epigenetically silenced miRNAs.
  • miRNA can also activate translation ( Posadas, D.M. & Carthew, R.W. Curr Opin Genet Dev 27, 1-6 (2014 )). Knocking out miRNA sites may lead to decreased expression of the targeted gene, while introducing these sites may increase expression.
  • miRNA can be knocked out most effectively by mutating the seed sequence (bases 2-8 of the microRNA), which can be important for binding specificity. Cleavage in this region, followed by mis-repair by NHEJ can effectively abolish miRNA function by blocking binding to target sites. miRNA could also be inhibited by specific targeting of the special loop region adjacent to the palindromic sequence. Catalytically inactive Cas9 can also be used to inhibit shRNA expression ( Zhao, Y. et al., Sci Rep 4, 3943 (2014 )). In addition to targeting the miRNA, the binding sites can also be targeted and mutated to prevent the silencing by miRNA.
  • any of the microRNA (miRNA) or their binding sites may be incorporated into the compositions of the present disclosure.
  • compositions may have a region such as, but not limited to, a region comprising the sequence of any of the microRNAs disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 632-4715, the reverse complement of the microRNAs disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 632-4715, or the microRNA anti-seed region of any of the microRNAs disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 632-4715.
  • compositions of the present disclosure may comprise one or more microRNA target sequences, microRNA sequences, or microRNA seeds.
  • Such sequences may correspond to any known microRNA such as those taught in U.S. Publication 2005/0261218 and U.S. Publication 2005/0059005 .
  • known microRNAs, their sequences and their binding site sequences in the human genome are disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 632-4715.
  • a microRNA sequence comprises a "seed" sequence, i.e., a sequence in the region of positions 2-8 of the mature microRNA, which sequence has perfect Watson-Crick complementarity to the miRNA target sequence.
  • a microRNA seed may comprise positions 2-8 or 2-7 of the mature microRNA.
  • a microRNA seed may comprise 7 nucleotides (e.g., nucleotides 2-8 of the mature microRNA), wherein the seed-complementary site in the corresponding miRNA target is flanked by an adenine (A) opposed to microRNA position 1.
  • a microRNA seed may comprise 6 nucleotides (e.g., nucleotides 2-7 of the mature microRNA), wherein the seed-complementary site in the corresponding miRNA target is flanked by an adenine (A) opposed to microRNA position 1.
  • A adenine
  • the bases of the microRNA seed have complete complementarity with the target sequence.
  • miR-122 a microRNA abundant in liver, can inhibit the expression of the sequence delivered if one or multiple target sites of miR-122 are engineered into the polynucleotide encoding that target sequence.
  • Introduction of one or multiple binding sites for different microRNA can be engineered to further decrease the longevity, stability, and protein translation hence providing an additional layer of tenability.
  • microRNA site refers to a microRNA target site or a microRNA recognition site, or any nucleotide sequence to which a microRNA binds or associates. It should be understood that “binding” may follow traditional Watson-Crick hybridization rules or may reflect any stable association of the microRNA with the target sequence at or adjacent to the microRNA site.
  • microRNA binding sites can be engineered out of (i.e. removed from) sequences in which they naturally occur in order to increase protein expression in specific tissues.
  • miR-137 binding sites may be removed to improve protein expression in the brain.
  • microRNAs are known to be differentially expressed in immune cells (also called hematopoietic cells), such as antigen presenting cells (APCs) (e.g. dendritic cells and macrophages), macrophages, monocytes, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, granulocytes, natural killer cells, etc.
  • APCs antigen presenting cells
  • Immune cell specific microRNAs are involved in immunogenicity, autoimmunity, the immune -response to infection, inflammation, as well as unwanted immune response after gene therapy and tissue/organ transplantation. Immune cells specific microRNAs also regulate many aspects of development, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of hematopoietic cells (immune cells).
  • miR-142 and miR-146 are exclusively expressed in the immune cells, particularly abundant in myeloid dendritic cells.
  • Introducing the miR-142 binding site into the 3'-UTR of a polypeptide of the present disclosure can selectively suppress the gene expression in the antigen presenting cells through miR-142 mediated mRNA degradation, limiting antigen presentation in professional APCs (e.g. dendritic cells) and thereby preventing antigen-mediated immune response after gene delivery (see, Annoni A et al., blood, 2009, 114, 5152-5161 ).
  • microRNAs binding sites that are known to be expressed in immune cells in particular, the antigen presenting cells, can be engineered into the polynucleotides to suppress the expression of the polynucleotide in APCs through microRNA mediated RNA degradation, subduing the antigen-mediated immune response, while the expression of the polynucleotide is maintained in non-immune cells where the immune cell specific microRNAs are not expressed.
  • microRNAs are differentially expressed in cancer cells ( WO2008/154098 , US2013/0059015 , US2013/0042333 , WO2011/157294 ); cancer stem cells ( US2012/0053224 ); pancreatic cancers and diseases ( US2009/0131348 , US2011/0171646 , US2010/0286232 , US8389210 ); asthma and inflammation ( US8415096 ); prostate cancer ( US2013/0053264 ); hepatocellular carcinoma ( WO2012/151212 , US2012/0329672 , WO2008/054828 , US8252538 ); lung cancer cells ( WO2011/076143 , WO2013/033640 , WO2009/070653 , US2010/03
  • Non-limiting examples of microRNA sequences and the targeted tissues and/or cells are disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 632-4715.
  • the methods of the present disclosure can involve editing of one or both of the mutant alleles.
  • Gene editing to modify or correct the ATXN2 gene has the advantage of restoration of correct expression levels or elimination of aberrant gene products and temporal control. Sequencing the patient's ATXN2 alleles allows for design of the gene editing strategy to best correct the identified mutation(s).
  • a step of the ex vivo methods of the present disclosure can comprise editing/correcting cells of the central nervous system (e.g., neurons or glial cells) isolated from a Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) patient using genome engineering.
  • a step of the ex vivo methods of the present disclosure can comprise editing/correcting the patient specific iPSCs or mesenchymal stem cells.
  • a step of the in vivo methods of the present disclosure involves editing/correcting the cells in a Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) patient using genome engineering.
  • a step in the cellular methods of the present disclosure can comprise editing/correcting the ATXN2 gene in a human cell by genome engineering.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • Any CRISPR endonuclease may be used in the methods of the present disclosure, each CRISPR endonuclease having its own associated PAM, which may or may not be disease specific.
  • the trinucleotide repeat expansion may be excised by inducing two double stranded breaks (DSBs) upstream and downstream of the repeat region. Pairs of gRNAs have been used for this type of deletions.
  • the CRISPR endonucleases, configured with the two gRNAs, induce two DSBs at the desired locations. After cleavage, the two ends, regardless of whether blunt or with overhangs, can be joined by NHEJ, leading to the deletion of the intervening segment.
  • the wild-type sequence can be restored by inserting a correct repeat sequence via HDR.
  • the trinucleotide repeat expansion may be deleted after inducing a single DSB near or within the repeat region.
  • Single DSB-induced repeat loss has been reported in several studies including TALEN-cleaved short CAG/CTG repeats engineered in yeast, ZFN-cleaved CAG repeats engineered in human cells, and CRISPR/Cas9-cleaved CTG/CAG repeats engineered in human cells ( Richard et al., PLoS ONE (2014), 9(4): e95611 ; Mittelman et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA (2009), 106(24):9607-12 ; van Agtmaal et al., Mol Ther (2016), https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymthe.2016.10.014 ).
  • a DSB near the repeat region destabilizes the repeat tracts, triggering a contraction (e.g. partial deletion) or, in some cases, a complete deletion of the repeats. Additionally, work by Mittelman et al. suggested that single DSB-induced repeat loss is more effective in longer repeats. In certain aspects, the wild-type sequence can be restored by inserting a correct repeat sequence via HDR.
  • mutant ATXN2 gene may be disrupted or eliminated by introducing random insertions or deletions (indels) that arise due to the imprecise NHEJ repair pathway.
  • the target regions may be the coding sequence of the ATXN2 gene (i.e., exons). Inserting or deleting nucleotides into the coding sequence of a gene may cause a "frame shift" where the normal 3-letter codon pattern is disturbed. In this way, gene expression and therefore mutant protein production can be reduced or eliminated.
  • This approach may also be used to target any intron, intron:exon junction, or regulatory DNA element of the ATXN2 gene where sequence alteration may interfere with the expression of the ATXN2 gene. This approach can require development and optimization of sgRNAs for the ATXN2 gene.
  • the entire mutant gene can be deleted and a wild-type gene, a cDNA or a minigene (comprised of one or more exons and introns or natural or synthetic introns) can be knocked into the gene locus or a heterologous location in the genome such as a safe harbor locus. Pairs of nucleases can be used to delete mutated gene regions, and a donor is provided to restore function. In this case two gRNA and one donor sequence would be supplied. A full length cDNA can be knocked into any safe harbor locus, but must use a supplied or an endogenous promoter. If this construct is knocked into the correct location or locus, it will have physiological control, similar to the normal gene.
  • HDR homology directed repair
  • HR homologous recombination
  • Homology directed repair is a cellular mechanism for repairing double-stranded breaks (DSBs).
  • the most common form is homologous recombination.
  • Genome engineering tools allow researchers to manipulate the cellular homologous recombination pathways to create site-specific modifications to the genome. It has been found that cells can repair a double-stranded break using a synthetic donor molecule provided in trans. Therefore, by introducing a double-stranded break near a specific mutation and providing a suitable donor, targeted changes can be made in the genome. Specific cleavage increases the rate of HDR more than 1,000 fold above the rate of 1 in 10 6 cells receiving a homologous donor alone.
  • HDR homology directed repair
  • Supplied donors for editing by HDR vary markedly but can contain the intended sequence with small or large flanking homology arms to allow annealing to the genomic DNA.
  • the homology regions flanking the introduced genetic changes can be 30 bp or smaller, or as large as a multi-kilobase cassette that can contain promoters, cDNAs, etc.
  • Both single-stranded and double-stranded oligonucleotide donors have been used. These oligonucleotides range in size from less than 100 nt to over many kb, though longer ssDNA can also be generated and used. Double-stranded donors can be used, including PCR amplicons, plasmids, and mini-circles.
  • an AAV vector can be a very effective means of delivery of a donor template, though the packaging limits for individual donors is ⁇ 5kb. Active transcription of the donor increased HDR three-fold, indicating the inclusion of promoter may increase conversion. Conversely, CpG methylation of the donor decreased gene expression and HDR.
  • nickase variants exist that have one or the other nuclease domain inactivated resulting in cutting of only one DNA strand.
  • HDR can be directed from individual Cas nickases or using pairs of nickases that flank the target area.
  • Donors can be single-stranded, nicked, or dsDNA.
  • the donor DNA can be supplied with the nuclease or independently by a variety of different methods, for example by transfection, nano-particle, micro-injection, or viral transduction.
  • a range of tethering options has been proposed to increase the availability of the donors for HDR. Examples include attaching the donor to the nuclease, attaching to DNA binding proteins that bind nearby, or attaching to proteins that are involved in DNA end binding or repair.
  • the repair pathway choice can be guided by a number of culture conditions, such as those that influence cell cycling, or by targeting of DNA repair and associated proteins.
  • a number of culture conditions such as those that influence cell cycling, or by targeting of DNA repair and associated proteins.
  • key NHEJ molecules can be suppressed, such as KU70, KU80 or DNA ligase IV.
  • the ends from a DNA break or ends from different breaks can be joined using the several non-homologous repair pathways in which the DNA ends are joined with little or no base-pairing at the junction.
  • there are similar repair mechanisms such as alt-NHEJ. If there are two breaks, the intervening segment can be deleted or inverted. NHEJ repair pathways can lead to insertions, deletions or mutations at the joints.
  • NHEJ was used to insert a 15-kb inducible gene expression cassette into a defined locus in human cell lines after nuclease cleavage.
  • a 15-kb inducible gene expression cassette into a defined locus in human cell lines after nuclease cleavage.
  • NHEJ may prove effective for ligation in the intron, while the error-free HDR may be better suited in the coding region.
  • the mutation of the ATXN2 gene that causes Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 is a trinucleotide repeat expansion of the three letter string of nucleotides CAG. In healthy individuals, there are few repeats of this trinucleotide, typically about or fewer than 31. In people with the diseases phenotype, the repeat can occur more than 100 times.
  • One or more trinucleotide repeats may be deleted or corrected in order to restore the gene to a wild-type or similar number of trinucleotide repeats. In some aspects, all of the trinucleotide repeats may be deleted. Alternatively, the mutant gene may be knocked out to eliminate toxic gene products.
  • any one or more of the mutations can be repaired in order to restore the inactive ATXN2.
  • an ATXN2 gene or cDNA can be inserted to the locus of the corresponding gene to replace the mutant gene or knocked-in to a safe harbor site, such as AAVS1.
  • the methods can provide one gRNA or a pair of gRNAs that can be used to facilitate incorporation of a new sequence from a polynucleotide donor template to knock-in a part of or the entire ATXN2 gene or cDNA.
  • deletions can either be single trinucleotide repeat deletions or multi-trinucleotide repeat deletions. While multi-repeat deletions, including complete deletion of the expanded trinucleotide repeat, can reach a larger number of patients, for larger deletions the efficiency of deletion greatly decreases with increased size.
  • the deletions range from 40 to 1,000 base pairs (bp) in size. For example, deletions may range from 40-100; 100-200; 200-300; 300-400; 400-500; or 500-1,000 base pairs in size.
  • the methods can provide gRNA pairs that make a deletion by cutting the gene twice, one gRNA cutting at the 5' end of the trinucleotide repeats and the other gRNA cutting at the 3' end of the trinucleotide repeats.
  • the cutting can be accomplished by a pair of DNA endonucleases that each makes a DSB in the genome, or by multiple nickases that together make a DSB in the genome.
  • the methods can provide one gRNA to make one double-strand cut around the trinucleotide repeats.
  • the double-strand cut can be made by a single DNA endonuclease or multiple nickases that together make a DSB in the genome.
  • Illustrative modifications within the ATXN2 gene include deletions within or near (proximal) to the trinucleotide repeats referred to above, such as within the region of less than 3 kb, less than 2kb, less than 1 kb, less than 0.5 kb upstream or downstream of the specific mutation.
  • proximal to the trinucleotide repeats referred to above, such as within the region of less than 3 kb, less than 2kb, less than 1 kb, less than 0.5 kb upstream or downstream of the specific mutation.
  • Such variants can include deletions that are larger in the 5' and/or 3' direction than the specific repeat expansion in question, or smaller in either direction. Accordingly, by “near” or “proximal” with respect to specific repeat expansion, it is intended that the SSB or DSB locus associated with a desired deletion boundary (also referred to herein as an endpoint) can be within a region that is less than about 3 kb from the reference locus noted.
  • the SSB or DSB locus can be more proximal and within 2 kb, within 1 kb, within 0.5 kb, or within 0.1 kb.
  • the desired endpoint can be at or "adjacent to" the reference locus, by which it is intended that the endpoint can be within 100 bp, within 50 bp, within 25 bp, or less than about 10 bp to 5 bp from the reference locus.
  • the surrounding splicing signals can be deleted.
  • Splicing donor and acceptors are generally within 100 base pairs of the neighboring intron. Therefore, in some examples, methods can provide all gRNAs that cut approximately +/- 100-3100 bp with respect to each exon/intron junction of interest.
  • gene editing can be confirmed by sequencing or PCR analysis.
  • Shifts in the location of the 5' boundary and/or the 3' boundary relative to particular reference loci can be used to facilitate or enhance particular applications of gene editing, which depend in part on the endonuclease system selected for the editing, as further described and illustrated herein.
  • many endonuclease systems have rules or criteria that can guide the initial selection of potential target sites for cleavage, such as the requirement of a PAM sequence motif in a particular position adjacent to the DNA cleavage sites in the case of CRISPR Type II or Type V endonucleases.
  • the frequency of off-target activity for a particular combination of target sequence and gene editing endonuclease can be assessed relative to the frequency of on-target activity.
  • cells that have been correctly edited at the desired locus can have a selective advantage relative to other cells.
  • a selective advantage include the acquisition of attributes such as enhanced rates of replication, persistence, resistance to certain conditions, enhanced rates of successful engraftment or persistence in vivo following introduction into a patient, and other attributes associated with the maintenance or increased numbers or viability of such cells.
  • cells that have been correctly edited at the desired locus can be positively selected for by one or more screening methods used to identify, sort or otherwise select for cells that have been correctly edited. Both selective advantage and directed selection methods can take advantage of the phenotype associated with the correction.
  • cells can be edited two or more times in order to create a second modification that creates a new phenotype that is used to select or purify the intended population of cells. Such a second modification could be created by adding a second gRNA enabling expression of a selectable or screenable marker.
  • cells can be correctly edited at the desired locus using a DNA fragment that contains the cDNA and also a selectable marker.
  • target sequence selection can also be guided by consideration of off-target frequencies in order to enhance the effectiveness of the application and/or reduce the potential for undesired alterations at sites other than the desired target.
  • off-target frequencies can be influenced by a number of factors including similarities and dissimilarities between the target site and various off-target sites, as well as the particular endonuclease used.
  • Bioinformatics tools are available that assist in the prediction of off-target activity, and frequently such tools can also be used to identify the most likely sites of off-target activity, which can then be assessed in experimental settings to evaluate relative frequencies of off-target to on-target activity, thereby allowing the selection of sequences that have higher relative on-target activities. Illustrative examples of such techniques are provided herein, and others are known in the art.
  • Another aspect of target sequence selection relates to homologous recombination events. Sequences sharing regions of homology can serve as focal points for homologous recombination events that result in deletion of intervening sequences. Such recombination events occur during the normal course of replication of chromosomes and other DNA sequences, and also at other times when DNA sequences are being synthesized, such as in the case of repairs of double-strand breaks (DSBs), which occur on a regular basis during the normal cell replication cycle but can also be enhanced by the occurrence of various events (such as UV light and other inducers of DNA breakage) or the presence of certain agents (such as various chemical inducers).
  • various events such as UV light and other inducers of DNA breakage
  • certain agents such as various chemical inducers
  • DSBs can be regularly induced and repaired in normal cells.
  • indels small insertions or deletions
  • DSBs can also be specifically induced at particular locations, as in the case of the endonucleases systems described herein, which can be used to cause directed or preferential gene modification events at selected chromosomal locations.
  • the tendency for homologous sequences to be subject to recombination in the context of DNA repair (as well as replication) can be taken advantage of in a number of circumstances, and is the basis for one application of gene editing systems, such as CRISPR, in which homology directed repair is used to insert a sequence of interest, provided through use of a "donor" polynucleotide, into a desired chromosomal location.
  • Regions of homology between particular sequences which can be small regions of "microhomology” that can comprise as few as ten base pairs or less, can also be used to bring about desired deletions.
  • a single DSB can be introduced at a site that exhibits microhomology with a nearby sequence.
  • a result that occurs with high frequency is the deletion of the intervening sequence as a result of recombination being facilitated by the DSB and concomitant cellular repair process.
  • selecting target sequences within regions of homology can also give rise to much larger deletions, including gene fusions (when the deletions are in coding regions), which may or may not be desired given the particular circumstances.
  • the examples provided herein further illustrate the selection of various target regions for the creation of DSBs designed to induce deletions or replacements that result in restoration of wild-type or similar levels of trinucleotide repeats in the ATXN2 gene, as well as the selection of specific target sequences within such regions that are designed to minimize off-target events relative to on-target events.
  • the principal targets for gene editing are human cells.
  • the human cells can be somatic cells, which after being modified using the techniques as described, can give rise to differentiated cells, e.g., neurons or progenitor cells.
  • the human cells may be cells from the central nervous system or cells from other affected organs.
  • Stem cells are capable of both proliferation and giving rise to more progenitor cells, these in turn having the ability to generate a large number of mother cells that can in turn give rise to differentiated or differentiable daughter cells.
  • the daughter cells themselves can be induced to proliferate and produce progeny that subsequently differentiate into one or more mature cell types, while also retaining one or more cells with parental developmental potential.
  • stem cell refers then, to a cell with the capacity or potential, under particular circumstances, to differentiate to a more specialized or differentiated phenotype, and which retains the capacity, under certain circumstances, to proliferate without substantially differentiating.
  • progenitor or stem cell refers to a generalized mother cell whose descendants (progeny) specialize, often in different directions, by differentiation, e.g., by acquiring completely individual characters, as occurs in progressive diversification of embryonic cells and tissues.
  • Cellular differentiation is a complex process typically occurring through many cell divisions.
  • a differentiated cell may derive from a multipotent cell that itself is derived from a multipotent cell, and so on. While each of these multipotent cells may be considered stem cells, the range of cell types that each can give rise to may vary considerably.
  • Some differentiated cells also have the capacity to give rise to cells of greater developmental potential. Such capacity may be natural or may be induced artificially upon treatment with various factors.
  • stem cells can also be "multipotent" because they can produce progeny of more than one distinct cell type, but this is not required for "stem-ness.”
  • Self-renewal can be another important aspect of the stem cell.
  • self-renewal can occur by either of two major mechanisms.
  • Stem cells can divide asymmetrically, with one daughter retaining the stem state and the other daughter expressing some distinct other specific function and phenotype.
  • some of the stem cells in a population can divide symmetrically into two stems, thus maintaining some stem cells in the population as a whole, while other cells in the population give rise to differentiated progeny only.
  • progenitor cells have a cellular phenotype that is more primitive ( i.e., is at an earlier step along a developmental pathway or progression than is a fully differentiated cell).
  • progenitor cells also have significant or very high-proliferative potential.
  • Progenitor cells can give rise to multiple distinct differentiated cell types or to a single differentiated cell type, depending on the developmental pathway and on the environment in which the cells develop and differentiate.
  • differentiated In the context of cell ontogeny, the adjective “differentiated,” or “differentiating” is a relative term.
  • a “differentiated cell” is a cell that has progressed further down the developmental pathway than the cell to which it is being compared.
  • stem cells can differentiate into lineage-restricted precursor cells (such as a neural progenitor cell), which in turn can differentiate into other types of precursor cells further down the pathway (such as a neural precursor), and then to an end-stage differentiated cell, such as a neural, which plays a characteristic role in a certain tissue type, and may or may not retain the capacity to proliferate further.
  • the genetically engineered human cells described herein can be induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
  • iPSCs induced pluripotent stem cells
  • An advantage of using iPSCs is that the cells can be derived from the same subject to which the progenitor cells are to be administered. That is, a somatic cell can be obtained from a subject, reprogrammed to an induced pluripotent stem cell, and then re-differentiated into a progenitor cell to be administered to the subject (e.g., autologous cells). Because the progenitors are essentially derived from an autologous source, the risk of engraftment rejection or allergic response can be reduced compared to the use of cells from another subject or group of subjects. In addition, the use of iPSCs negates the need for cells obtained from an embryonic source. Thus, in one aspect, the stem cells used in the disclosed methods are not embryonic stem cells.
  • reprogramming refers to a process that alters or reverses the differentiation state of a differentiated cell (e.g., a somatic cell). Stated another way, reprogramming refers to a process of driving the differentiation of a cell backwards to a more undifferentiated or more primitive type of cell. It should be noted that placing many primary cells in culture can lead to some loss of fully differentiated characteristics. Thus, simply culturing such cells included in the term differentiated cells does not render these cells non-differentiated cells (e.g., undifferentiated cells) or pluripotent cells. The transition of a differentiated cell to pluripotency requires a reprogramming stimulus beyond the stimuli that lead to partial loss of differentiated character in culture. Reprogrammed cells also have the characteristic of the capacity of extended passaging without loss of growth potential, relative to primary cell parents, which generally have capacity for only a limited number of divisions in culture.
  • the cell to be reprogrammed can be either partially or terminally differentiated prior to reprogramming.
  • Reprogramming can encompass complete reversion of the differentiation state of a differentiated cell (e.g., a somatic cell) to a pluripotent state or a multipotent state.
  • Reprogramming can encompass complete or partial reversion of the differentiation state of a differentiated cell (e.g., a somatic cell) to an undifferentiated cell (e.g., an embryonic-like cell).
  • Reprogramming can result in expression of particular genes by the cells, the expression of which further contributes to reprogramming.
  • reprogramming of a differentiated cell can cause the differentiated cell to assume an undifferentiated state (e.g., is an undifferentiated cell).
  • the resulting cells are referred to as "reprogrammed cells,” or “induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs or iPS cells).”
  • Reprogramming can involve alteration, e.g., reversal, of at least some of the heritable patterns of nucleic acid modification (e.g., methylation), chromatin condensation, epigenetic changes, genomic imprinting, etc., that occur during cellular differentiation.
  • Reprogramming is distinct from simply maintaining the existing undifferentiated state of a cell that is already pluripotent or maintaining the existing less than fully differentiated state of a cell that is already a multipotent cell (e.g., a myogenic stem cell).
  • Reprogramming is also distinct from promoting the self-renewal or proliferation of cells that are already pluripotent or multipotent, although the compositions and methods described herein can also be of use for such purposes, in some examples.
  • Mouse somatic cells can be converted to ES cell-like cells with expanded developmental potential by the direct transduction of Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc; see, e.g., Takahashi and Yamanaka, Cell 126(4): 663-76 (2006 ).
  • iPSCs resemble ES cells, as they restore the pluripotency-associated transcriptional circuitry and much of the epigenetic landscape.
  • mouse iPSCs satisfy all the standard assays for pluripotency: specifically, in vitro differentiation into cell types of the three germ layers, teratoma formation, contribution to chimeras, germline transmission [see, e.g., Maherali and Hochedlinger, Cell Stem Cell. 3(6):595-605 (2008 )], and tetraploid complementation.
  • iPSCs Human iPSCs can be obtained using similar transduction methods, and the transcription factor trio, OCT4, SOX2, and NANOG, has been established as the core set of transcription factors that govern pluripotency; see, e.g., Budniatzky and Gepstein, Stem Cells Transl Med. 3(4):448-57 (2014 ); Barrett et al., Stem Cells Trans Med 3:1-6 sctm.2014-0121 (2014 ); Focosi et al., Blood Cancer Journal 4: e211 (2014 ); and references cited therein.
  • the production of iPSCs can be achieved by the introduction of nucleic acid sequences encoding stem cell-associated genes into an adult, somatic cell, historically using viral vectors.
  • iPSCs can be generated or derived from terminally differentiated somatic cells, as well as from adult stem cells, or somatic stem cells. That is, a non-pluripotent progenitor cell can be rendered pluripotent or multipotent by reprogramming. In such instances, it may not be necessary to include as many reprogramming factors as required to reprogram a terminally differentiated cell.
  • reprogramming can be induced by the non-viral introduction of reprogramming factors, e.g., by introducing the proteins themselves, or by introducing nucleic acids that encode the reprogramming factors, or by introducing messenger RNAs that upon translation produce the reprogramming factors (see e.g., Warren et al., Cell Stem Cell, 7(5):618-30 (2010 ).
  • Reprogramming can be achieved by introducing a combination of nucleic acids encoding stem cell-associated genes, including, for example, Oct-4 (also known as Oct-3/4 or Pouf51), Soxl, Sox2, Sox3, Sox 15, Sox 18, NANOG, Klfl, Klf2, Klf4, Klf5, NR5A2, c-Myc, 1-Myc, n-Myc, Rem2, Tert, and LIN28.
  • Reprogramming using the methods and compositions described herein can further comprise introducing one or more of Oct-3/4, a member of the Sox family, a member of the Klf family, and a member of the Myc family to a somatic cell.
  • the methods and compositions described herein can further comprise introducing one or more of each of Oct-4, Sox2, Nanog, c-MYC and Klf4 for reprogramming.
  • the exact method used for reprogramming is not necessarily critical to the methods and compositions described herein.
  • the reprogramming is not effected by a method that alters the genome.
  • reprogramming can be achieved, e.g., without the use of viral or plasmid vectors.
  • the efficiency of reprogramming i.e., the number of reprogrammed cells derived from a population of starting cells can be enhanced by the addition of various agents, e.g., small molecules, as shown by Shi et al., Cell-Stem Cell 2:525-528 (2008 ); Huangfu et al., Nature Biotechnology 26(7):795-797 (2008 ) and Marson et al., Cell-Stem Cell 3: 132-135 (2008 ).
  • an agent or combination of agents that enhance the efficiency or rate of induced pluripotent stem cell production can be used in the production of patient-specific or disease-specific iPSCs.
  • agents that enhance reprogramming efficiency include soluble Wnt, Wnt conditioned media, BIX-01294 (a G9a histone methyltransferase), PD0325901 (a MEK inhibitor), DNA methyltransferase inhibitors, histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, valproic acid, 5'-azacytidine, dexamethasone, suberoylanilide, hydroxamic acid (SAHA), vitamin C, and trichostatin (TSA), among others.
  • reprogramming enhancing agents include: Suberoylanilide Hydroxamic Acid (SAHA (e.g., MK0683, vorinostat) and other hydroxamic acids), BML-210, Depudecin ( e.g., (-)-Depudecin), HC Toxin, Nullscript (4-(l,3-Dioxo-lH,3H-benzo[de]isoquinolin-2-yl)-N-hydroxybutanamide), Phenylbutyrate ( e.g., sodium phenylbutyrate) and Valproic Acid ((VP A) and other short chain fatty acids), Scriptaid, Suramin Sodium, Trichostatin A (TSA), APHA Compound 8, Apicidin, Sodium Butyrate, pivaloyloxymethyl butyrate (Pivanex, AN-9), Trapoxin B, Chlamydocin, Depsipeptide (also known as FR901228 or F
  • reprogramming enhancing agents include, for example, dominant negative forms of the HDACs (e.g., catalytically inactive forms), siRNA inhibitors of the HDACs, and antibodies that specifically bind to the HDACs.
  • HDACs e.g., catalytically inactive forms
  • siRNA inhibitors of the HDACs e.g., antibodies that specifically bind to the HDACs.
  • Such inhibitors are available, e.g., from BIOMOL International, Fukasawa, Merck Biosciences, Novartis, Gloucester Pharmaceuticals, Titan Pharmaceuticals, MethylGene, and Sigma Aldrich.
  • isolated clones can be tested for the expression of a stem cell marker.
  • a stem cell marker can be selected from the non-limiting group including SSEA3, SSEA4, CD9, Nanog, Fbxl5, Ecatl, Esgl, Eras, Gdf3, Fgf4, Cripto, Daxl, Zpf296, Slc2a3, Rexl, Utfl, and Natl.
  • a cell that expresses Oct4 or Nanog is identified as pluripotent.
  • Methods for detecting the expression of such markers can include, for example, RT-PCR and immunological methods that detect the presence of the encoded polypeptides, such as Western blots or flow cytometric analyses. Detection can involve not only RT-PCR, but can also include detection of protein markers. Intracellular markers may be best identified via RT-PCR, or protein detection methods such as immunocytochemistry, while cell surface markers are readily identified, e.g., by immunocytochemistry.
  • the pluripotent stem cell character of isolated cells can be confirmed by tests evaluating the ability of the iPSCs to differentiate into cells of each of the three germ layers.
  • teratoma formation in nude mice can be used to evaluate the pluripotent character of the isolated clones.
  • the cells can be introduced into nude mice and histology and/or immunohistochemistry can be performed on a tumor arising from the cells.
  • the growth of a tumor comprising cells from all three germ layers, for example, further indicates that the cells are pluripotent stem cells.
  • the genetically engineered human cells described herein are cells of the central nervous system.
  • Neurons which process information
  • glial cells or neuroglia
  • neuroglia which provide mechanical and metabolic support to the nervous system and modulate information processed by neurons
  • Non-limiting examples of neurons include sensory neurons (also referred to as afferent neurons) transfer information from the external environment to the central nervous system, motor neurons (also referred to as efferent neurons) transfer information from the central nervous system to the external environment, and interneurons (also referred to as association neurons) process information in the central nervous system and transfers the information from one neuron to the other within the central nervous system.
  • glial cells include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia and Schwann cells.
  • CNS progenitor cells can be neural progenitor cells or glial progenitor cells.
  • Neurons contain a cell body, dendrite, axon hillock, axon, nerve endings, neuronal synapses and neuromuscular junctions. Neurons may be named according to shape or the nature of the dendritic tree.
  • Neuroglia The most numerous cellular constituents of the central nervous system are the non-neuronal, neuroglial ("nerve glue") cells that occupy the space between neurons. It has been estimated that there are roughly 360 billion glial cells, which comprise 80-90% of the cells in the CNS. Neuroglia differ from neurons in several general ways in that they: do not form synapses, have essentially only one type of process, retain the ability to divide, and are less electrically excitable than neurons. Neuroglia are classified based on size and shape of their nucleus and distinguished from neurons, at the light microscopic level. Neuroglia are divided into two major categories based on size, the macroglia and the microglia. The macroglia are of ectodermal origin and consist of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and ependymal cells. Microglia cells are probably of mesodermal origin.
  • One step of the ex vivo methods of the present disclosure can involve creating a patient specific iPS cell, patient specific iPS cells, or a patient specific iPS cell line.
  • the creating step can comprise: a) isolating a somatic cell, such as a skin cell or fibroblast, from the patient; and b) introducing a set of pluripotency-associated genes into the somatic cell in order to induce the cell to become a pluripotent stem cell.
  • the set of pluripotency-associated genes can be one or more of the genes selected from the group consisting of OCT4, SOX1, SOX2, SOX3, SOX15, SOX18, NANOG, KLF1, KLF2, KLF4, KLF5, c-MYC, n-MYC, REM2, TERT and LIN28.
  • a biopsy or aspirate is a sample of tissue or fluid taken from the body.
  • biopsies or aspirates There are many different kinds of biopsies or aspirates. Nearly all of them involve using a sharp tool to remove a small amount of tissue. If the biopsy will be on the skin or other sensitive area, numbing medicine can be applied first.
  • a biopsy or aspirate may be performed according to any of the known methods in the art. For example, in the case of brain, a needle biopsy is performed to isolate a piece of the brain. A small hole is drilled into the skull and a narrow, hollow needle is placed into the hole to extract a tiny portion of the tissue. For example, in a bone marrow aspirate, a large needle is used to enter the pelvis bone to collect bone marrow.
  • Neurons may be isolated according to any known method in the art.
  • the biopsied tissue from the brain is disassociated by trituration and trypsinization (0.25% trypsin in PBS at 37°C for 15 min).
  • the trypsin is inactivated with 10% heat-inactivated FBS (fetal bovine serum).
  • FBS fetal bovine serum
  • the disassociated cells are filtered through 380 and 140 ⁇ m meshes and pelleted by centrifugation. The cell pellet is then washed once with PBS and once with Neurobasal media.
  • the neurons are enriched and cultured on poly-D-lysine-coated plates.
  • the adherent cells receive Neurobasal media used previously and are further treated with 10 ⁇ M cytosine arabonoside (AraC) for 10 days to prevent proliferation of dividing cells.
  • Cells are cultured and characterized for neuron-specific markers such as MAP-2 ( Zhang et al., Journal of Cell Biology, 2002, 156(3):519-29 ).
  • Mesenchymal stem cells can be isolated according to any method known in the art, such as from a patient's bone marrow or peripheral blood. For example, marrow aspirate can be collected into a syringe with heparin. Cells can be washed and centrifuged on a Percoll. The cells can be cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) (low glucose) containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) ( Pittinger MF, Mackay AM, Beck SC et al., Science 1999; 284:143-147 ).
  • DMEM Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium
  • FBS fetal bovine serum
  • genetically modified cell refers to a cell that comprises at least one genetic modification introduced by genome editing (e.g., using the CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpfl system).
  • the genetically modified cell can be genetically modified neural progenitor cell.
  • the genetically modified cell can be a genetically modified cell of the central nervous system (e.g., a neuron or a glial cell).
  • a genetically modified cell comprising an exogenous genome-targeting nucleic acid and/or an exogenous nucleic acid encoding a genome-targeting nucleic acid is contemplated herein.
  • control treated population describes a population of cells that has been treated with identical media, viral induction, nucleic acid sequences, temperature, confluency, flask size, pH, etc., with the exception of the addition of the genome editing components. Any method known in the art can be used to measure restoration of ATXN2 gene or protein expression or activity, for example Western Blot analysis of the ATXN2 protein or real time PCR for quantifying ATXN2 mRNA.
  • isolated cell refers to a cell that has been removed from an organism in which it was originally found, or a descendant of such a cell.
  • the cell can be cultured in vitro, e.g., under defined conditions or in the presence of other cells.
  • the cell can be later introduced into a second organism or re-introduced into the organism from which it (or the cell from which it is descended) was isolated.
  • isolated population refers to a population of cells that has been removed and separated from a mixed or heterogeneous population of cells.
  • the isolated population can be a substantially pure population of cells, as compared to the heterogeneous population from which the cells were isolated or enriched.
  • the isolated population can be an isolated population of human progenitor cells, e.g., a substantially pure population of human progenitor cells, as compared to a heterogeneous population of cells comprising human progenitor cells and cells from which the human progenitor cells were derived.
  • substantially enhanced refers to a population of cells in which the occurrence of a particular type of cell is increased relative to pre-existing or reference levels, by at least 2-fold, at least 3-, at least 4-, at least 5-, at least 6-, at least 7-, at least 8-, at least 9, at least 10-, at least 20-, at least 50-, at least 100-, at least 400-, at least 1000-, at least 5000-, at least 20000-, at least 100000- or more fold depending, e.g., on the desired levels of such cells for ameliorating Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2).
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • substantially enriched with respect to a particular cell population, refers to a population of cells that is at least about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70% or more with respect to the cells making up a total cell population.
  • substantially pure with respect to a particular cell population, refers to a population of cells that is at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95% pure, with respect to the cells making up a total cell population. That is, the terms “substantially pure” or “essentially purified,” with regard to a population of progenitor cells, refers to a population of cells that contain fewer than about 20%, about 15%, about 10%, about 9%, about 8%, about 7%, about 6%, about 5%, about 4%, about 3%, about 2%, about 1%, or less than 1%, of cells that are not progenitor cells as defined by the terms herein.
  • Another step of the ex vivo methods of the present disclosure can comprise differentiating the genome-edited iPSCs into cells of the central nervous system (CNS) (e.g., neurons or glial cells).
  • the differentiating step may be performed according to any method known in the art.
  • Another step of the ex vivo methods of the present disclosure can comprise differentiating the genome-edited mesenchymal stem cells into cells of the central nervous system (CNS).
  • the differentiating step may be performed according to any method known in the art.
  • Another step of the ex vivo methods of the present disclosure involves implanting the cells of the central nervous system (e.g., neurons or glial cells) into patients.
  • This implanting step may be accomplished using any method of implantation known in the art.
  • the genetically modified neurons may be administered to the patient via intraparenchymal, vascular (e.g., intravenous, intra-arterial), or ventricular (e.g., intracerebroventricular, intracisternal, intrathecal) routes or other routes such as intracranial or intraperitoneal injection.
  • ex vivo methods of administering progenitor cells to a subject contemplated herein involve the use of therapeutic compositions comprising progenitor cells.
  • Therapeutic compositions can contain a physiologically tolerable carrier together with the cell composition, and optionally at least one additional bioactive agent as described herein, dissolved or dispersed therein as an active ingredient.
  • the therapeutic composition is not substantially immunogenic when administered to a mammal or human patient for therapeutic purposes, unless so desired.
  • the progenitor cells described herein can be administered as a suspension with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to be used in a cell composition will not include buffers, compounds, cryopreservation agents, preservatives, or other agents in amounts that substantially interfere with the viability of the cells to be delivered to the subject.
  • a formulation comprising cells can include e.g., osmotic buffers that permit cell membrane integrity to be maintained, and optionally, nutrients to maintain cell viability or enhance engraftment upon administration.
  • Such formulations and suspensions are known to those of skill in the art and/or can be adapted for use with the progenitor cells, as described herein, using routine experimentation.
  • a cell composition can also be emulsified or presented as a liposome composition, provided that the emulsification procedure does not adversely affect cell viability.
  • the cells and any other active ingredient can be mixed with excipients that are pharmaceutically acceptable and compatible with the active ingredient, and in amounts suitable for use in the therapeutic methods described herein.
  • Additional agents included in a cell composition can include pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the components therein.
  • Pharmaceutically acceptable salts include the acid addition salts (formed with the free amino groups of the polypeptide) that are formed with inorganic acids, such as, for example, hydrochloric or phosphoric acids, or such organic acids as acetic, tartaric, mandelic and the like. Salts formed with the free carboxyl groups can also be derived from inorganic bases, such as, for example, sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium or ferric hydroxides, and such organic bases as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, 2-ethylamino ethanol, histidine, procaine and the like.
  • Physiologically tolerable carriers are well known in the art.
  • Exemplary liquid carriers are sterile aqueous solutions that contain no materials in addition to the active ingredients and water, or contain a buffer such as sodium phosphate at physiological pH value, physiological saline or both, such as phosphate-buffered saline.
  • aqueous carriers can contain more than one buffer salt, as well as salts such as sodium and potassium chlorides, dextrose, polyethylene glycol and other solutes.
  • Liquid compositions can also contain liquid phases in addition to and to the exclusion of water. Exemplary of such additional liquid phases are glycerin, vegetable oils such as cottonseed oil, and water-oil emulsions.
  • the amount of an active compound used in the cell compositions that is effective in the treatment of a particular disorder or condition can depend on the nature of the disorder or condition, and can be determined by standard clinical techniques.
  • Guide RNAs of the present disclosure can be formulated with pharmaceutically acceptable excipients such as carriers, solvents, stabilizers, adjuvants, diluents, etc., depending upon the particular mode of administration and dosage form.
  • Guide RNA compositions can be formulated to achieve a physiologically compatible pH, and range from a pH of about 3 to a pH of about 11, about pH 3 to about pH 7, depending on the formulation and route of administration.
  • the pH can be adjusted to a range from about pH 5.0 to about pH 8.
  • the compositions can comprise a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compound as described herein, together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients.
  • compositions can comprise a combination of the compounds described herein, or can include a second active ingredient useful in the treatment or prevention of bacterial growth (for example and without limitation, anti-bacterial or anti-microbial agents), or can include a combination of reagents of the present disclosure.
  • Suitable excipients include, for example, carrier molecules that include large, slowly metabolized macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, polylactic acids, polyglycolic acids, polymeric amino acids, amino acid copolymers, and inactive virus particles.
  • Other exemplary excipients can include antioxidants (for example and without limitation, ascorbic acid), chelating agents (for example and without limitation, EDTA), carbohydrates (for example and without limitation, dextrin, hydroxyalkylcellulose, and hydroxyalkylmethylcellulose), stearic acid, liquids (for example and without limitation, oils, water, saline, glycerol and ethanol), wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering substances, and the like.
  • RNA polynucleotides RNA or DNA
  • endonuclease polynucleotide(s) RNA or DNA
  • endonuclease polypeptide(s) can be delivered by viral or non-viral delivery vehicles known in the art, such as electroporation or lipid nanoparticles.
  • the DNA endonuclease can be delivered as one or more polypeptides, either alone or pre-complexed with one or more guide RNAs, or one or more crRNA together with a tracrRNA.
  • Polynucleotides can be delivered by non-viral delivery vehicles including, but not limited to, nanoparticles, liposomes, ribonucleoproteins, positively charged peptides, small molecule RNA-conjugates, aptamer-RNA chimeras, and RNA-fusion protein complexes.
  • non-viral delivery vehicles including, but not limited to, nanoparticles, liposomes, ribonucleoproteins, positively charged peptides, small molecule RNA-conjugates, aptamer-RNA chimeras, and RNA-fusion protein complexes.
  • the formulation may be selected from any of those taught, for example, in International Application PCT/US2012/069610 .
  • Polynucleotides such as guide RNA, sgRNA, and mRNA encoding an endonuclease, may be delivered to a cell or a patient by a lipid nanoparticle (LNP).
  • LNP lipid nanoparticle
  • a LNP refers to any particle having a diameter of less than 1000 nm, 500 nm, 250 nm, 200 nm, 150 nm, 100 nm, 75 nm, 50 nm, or 25 nm.
  • a nanoparticle may range in size from 1-1000 nm, 1-500 nm, 1-250 nm, 25-200 nm, 25-100 nm, 35-75 nm, or 25-60 nm.
  • LNPs may be made from cationic, anionic, or neutral lipids.
  • Neutral lipids such as the fusogenic phospholipid DOPE or the membrane component cholesterol, may be included in LNPs as 'helper lipids' to enhance transfection activity and nanoparticle stability.
  • Limitations of cationic lipids include low efficacy owing to poor stability and rapid clearance, as well as the generation of inflammatory or anti-inflammatory responses.
  • LNPs may also be comprised of hydrophobic lipids, hydrophilic lipids, or both hydrophobic and hydrophilic lipids.
  • lipids used to produce LNPs are: DOTMA, DOSPA, DOTAP, DMRIE, DC-cholesterol, DOTAP-cholesterol, GAP-DMORIE-DPyPE, and GL67A-DOPE-DMPE-polyethylene glycol (PEG).
  • cationic lipids are: 98N12-5, C12-200, DLin-KC2-DMA (KC2), DLin-MC3-DMA (MC3), XTC, MD1, and 7C1.
  • neutral lipids are: DPSC, DPPC, POPC, DOPE, and SM.
  • PEG-modified lipids are: PEG-DMG, PEG-CerC14, and PEG-CerC20.
  • the lipids can be combined in any number of molar ratios to produce a LNP.
  • the polynucleotide(s) can be combined with lipid(s) in a wide range of molar ratios to produce a LNP.
  • the site-directed polypeptide and genome-targeting nucleic acid can each be administered separately to a cell or a patient.
  • the site-directed polypeptide can be pre-complexed with one or more guide RNAs, or one or more crRNA together with a tracrRNA.
  • the pre-complexed material can then be administered to a cell or a patient.
  • Such pre-complexed material is known as a ribonucleoprotein particle (RNP).
  • RNA is capable of forming specific interactions with RNA or DNA. While this property is exploited in many biological processes, it also comes with the risk of promiscuous interactions in a nucleic acid-rich cellular environment.
  • One solution to this problem is the formation of ribonucleoprotein particles (RNPs), in which the RNA is pre-complexed with an endonuclease.
  • RNPs ribonucleoprotein particles
  • Another benefit of the RNP is protection of the RNA from degradation.
  • the endonuclease in the RNP can be modified or unmodified.
  • the gRNA, crRNA, tracrRNA, or sgRNA can be modified or unmodified. Numerous modifications are known in the art and can be used.
  • the endonuclease and sgRNA can be generally combined in a 1:1 molar ratio.
  • the endonuclease, crRNA and tracrRNA can be generally combined in a 1:1:1 molar ratio.
  • a wide range of molar ratios can be used to produce a RNP
  • AA V adeno associated virus
  • a recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector can be used for delivery.
  • Techniques to produce rAAV particles, in which an AAV genome to be packaged that includes the polynucleotide to be delivered, rep and cap genes, and helper virus functions are provided to a cell are standard in the art. Production of rAAV typically requires that the following components are present within a single cell (denoted herein as a packaging cell): a rAAV genome, AAV rep and cap genes separate from (i.e., not in) the rAAV genome, and helper virus functions.
  • the AAV rep and cap genes may be from any AAV serotype for which recombinant virus can be derived, and may be from a different AAV serotype than the rAAV genome ITRs, including, but not limited to, AAV serotypes described herein. Production of pseudotyped rAAV is disclosed in, for example, international patent application publication number WO 01/83692 .
  • AAV particles packaging polynucleotides encoding compositions of the present disclosure may comprise or be derived from any natural or recombinant AAV serotype.
  • the AAV particles may utilize or be based on a serotype selected from any of the following serotypes, and variants thereof including but not limited to AAV1, AAV10, AAV106.1/hu.37, AAV11, AAV114.3/hu.A0, AAV12, AAV127.2/hu.41, AAV127.5/hu.42, AAV128.1/hu.43, AAV128.3/hu.44, AAV130.4/hu.48, AAV145.1/hu.53, AAV145.5/hu.54, AAV145.6/hu.55, AAV16.12/hu.11, AAV16.3, AAV16.8/hu.10, AAV161.10/hu.60, AAV161.6/hu.61, AAV1-7/rh.48, AAV1-8/rh.49, AAV2, AAV2.5T, AAV2-15/rh.62, AAV223.1, AAV223.2,
  • the AAV serotype may be, or have, a mutation in the AAV9 sequence as described by N Pulichla et al. (Molecular Therapy 19(6): 1070-1078 (2011 )), such as but not limited to, AAV9.9, AAV9.11, AAV9.13, AAV9.16, AAV9.24, AAV9.45, AAV9.47, AAV9.61, AAV9.68, AAV9.84.
  • the AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Patent No. 6156303 , such as, but not limited to, AAV3B (SEQ ID NO: 1 and 10 of U.S. 6156303 ), AAV6 (SEQ ID NO: 2, 7 and 11 of U.S. 6156303 ), AAV2 (SEQ ID NO: 3 and 8 of U.S. 6156303 ), AAV3A (SEQ ID NO: 4 and 9, of U.S. 6156303 ), or derivatives thereof.
  • AAV3B SEQ ID NO: 1 and 10 of U.S. 6156303
  • AAV6 SEQ ID NO: 2, 7 and 11 of U.S. 6156303
  • AAV2 SEQ ID NO: 3 and 8 of U.S. 6156303
  • AAV3A SEQ ID NO: 4 and 9, of U.S. 6156303
  • the serotype may be AAVDJ or a variant thereof, such as AAVDJ8 (or AAV-DJ8), as described by Grimm et al. (Journal of Virology 82(12): 5887-5911 (2008 )).
  • the amino acid sequence of AAVDJ8 may comprise two or more mutations in order to remove the heparin binding domain (HBD).
  • HBD heparin binding domain
  • 7,588,772 may comprise two mutations: (1) R587Q where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 587 is changed to glutamine (Q; Gln) and (2) R590T where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 590 is changed to threonine (T; Thr).
  • K406R where lysine (K; Lys) at amino acid 406 is changed to arginine (R; Arg)
  • R587Q where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 587 is changed to glutamine (Q; Gln)
  • R590T where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 590 is changed to threonine (T; Thr).
  • the AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in International Publication No. WO2015121501 , such as, but not limited to, true type AAV (ttAAV) (SEQ ID NO: 2 of WO2015121501 ), "UPenn AAV10” (SEQ ID NO: 8 of WO2015121501 ), “Japanese AAV10” (SEQ ID NO: 9 of WO2015121501 ), or variants thereof.
  • true type AAV ttAAV
  • UPenn AAV10 SEQ ID NO: 8 of WO2015121501
  • Japanese AAV10 Japanese AAV10
  • AAV capsid serotype selection or use may be from a variety of species.
  • the AAV may be an avian AAV (AAAV).
  • the AAAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Patent No. 9238800 , such as, but not limited to, AAAV (SEQ ID NO: 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 of U.S. 9,238,800 ), or variants thereof.
  • the AAV may be a bovine AAV (BAAV).
  • BAAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Patent No. 9,193,769 , such as, but not limited to, BAAV (SEQ ID NO: 1 and 6 of U.S. 9193769 ), or variants thereof.
  • BAAV serotype may be or have a sequence as described in U.S. Patent No. 7427396 , such as, but not limited to, BAAV (SEQ ID NO: 5 and 6 of U.S. 7427396 ), or variants thereof.
  • the AAV may be a caprine AAV.
  • the caprine AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Patent No. 7427396 , such as, but not limited to, caprine AAV (SEQ ID NO: 3 of U.S. 7427396 ), or variants thereof.
  • the AAV may be engineered as a hybrid AAV from two or more parental serotypes.
  • the AAV may be AAV2G9 which comprises sequences from AAV2 and AAV9.
  • the AAV2G9 AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 20160017005 .
  • the AAV may be a serotype generated by the AAV9 capsid library with mutations in amino acids 390-627 (VP1 numbering) as described by Pulichla et al. (Molecular Therapy 19(6):1070-1078 (2011 ).
  • the serotype and corresponding nucleotide and amino acid substitutions may be, but is not limited to, AAV9.1 (G1594C; D532H), AAV6.2 (T1418A and T1436X; V473D and I479K), AAV9.3 (T1238A; F413Y), AAV9.4 (T1250C and A1617T; F417S), AAV9.5 (A1235G, A1314T, A1642G, C1760T; Q412R, T548A, A587V), AAV9.6 (T1231A; F411I), AAV9.9 (G1203A, G1785T; W595C), AAV9.10 (A1500G, T1676C; M559T), AAV9.11 (A1425T, A1702C, A1769T; T568P, Q590L), AAV9.13 (A1369C, A1720T; N457H, T574S), AAV9.14 (
  • the AAV may be a serotype comprising at least one AAV capsid CD8+ T-cell epitope.
  • the serotype may be AAV1, AAV2 or AAV8.
  • the AAV may be a variant, such as PHP.A or PHP.B as described in Deverman. 2016. Nature Biotechnology. 34(2): 204-209 .
  • the AAV may be a serotype selected from any of those found in SEQ ID NOs: 4734-5302 and Table 2.
  • the AAV may be encoded by a sequence, fragment or variant as disclosed in SEQ ID NOs: 4734-5302 and Table 2.
  • AAV vector serotypes can be matched to target cell types.
  • the following exemplary cell types can be transduced by the indicated AAV serotypes among others.
  • Table 2. Tissue/Cell Types and Serotypes
  • viral vectors include, but are not limited to, lentivirus, alphavirus, enterovirus, pestivirus, baculovirus, herpesvirus, Epstein Barr virus, papovavirus, poxvirus, vaccinia virus, and herpes simplex virus.
  • Cas9 mRNA, sgRNA targeting one or two sites in ATXN2 gene, and donor DNA can each be separately formulated into lipid nanoparticles, or are all co-formulated into one lipid nanoparticle.
  • Cas9 mRNA can be formulated in a lipid nanoparticle, while sgRNA and donor DNA can be delivered in an AAV vector.
  • the guide RNA can be expressed from the same DNA, or can also be delivered as an RNA.
  • the RNA can be chemically modified to alter or improve its half-life, or decrease the likelihood or degree of immune response.
  • the endonuclease protein can be complexed with the gRNA prior to delivery.
  • Viral vectors allow efficient delivery; split versions of Cas9 and smaller orthologs of Cas9 can be packaged in AAV, as can donors for HDR.
  • a range of non-viral delivery methods also exist that can deliver each of these components, or non-viral and viral methods can be employed in tandem. For example, nano-particles can be used to deliver the protein and guide RNA, while AAV can be used to deliver a donor DNA.
  • administering introducing
  • transplanting are used interchangeably in the context of the placement of cells, e.g., progenitor cells, into a subject, by a method or route that results in at least partial localization of the introduced cells at a desired site, such as a site of injury or repair, such that a desired effect(s) is produced.
  • the cells e.g., progenitor cells, or their differentiated progeny can be administered by any appropriate route that results in delivery to a desired location in the subject where at least a portion of the implanted cells or components of the cells remain viable.
  • the period of viability of the cells after administration to a subject can be as short as a few hours, e.g., twenty-four hours, to a few days, to as long as several years, or even the life time of the patient, i.e., long-term engraftment.
  • an effective amount of neural progenitor cells is administered via a systemic route of administration, such as an intraperitoneal or intravenous route.
  • the terms "individual,” “subject,” “host” and “patient” are used interchangeably herein and refer to any subject for whom diagnosis, treatment or therapy is desired.
  • the subject is a mammal.
  • the subject is a human being.
  • progenitor cells described herein can be administered to a subject in advance of any symptom of Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2). Accordingly, the prophylactic administration of a progenitor cell population serves to prevent Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2).
  • a progenitor cell population being administered according to the methods described herein can comprise allogeneic progenitor cells obtained from one or more donors.
  • Such progenitors may be of any cellular or tissue origin, e.g., liver, muscle, cardiac, brain, etc.
  • Allogeneic refers to a progenitor cell or biological samples comprising progenitor cells obtained from one or more different donors of the same species, where the genes at one or more loci are not identical.
  • a liver progenitor cell population being administered to a subject can be derived from one more unrelated donor subjects, or from one or more non-identical siblings.
  • syngeneic progenitor cell populations can be used, such as those obtained from genetically identical animals, or from identical twins.
  • the progenitor cells can be autologous cells; that is, the progenitor cells are obtained or isolated from a subject and administered to the same subject, i.e., the donor and recipient are the same.
  • the term "effective amount” refers to the amount of a population of progenitor cells or their progeny needed to prevent or alleviate at least one or more signs or symptoms of Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2), and relates to a sufficient amount of a composition to provide the desired effect, e.g., to treat a subject having Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2).
  • the term “therapeutically effective amount” therefore refers to an amount of progenitor cells or a composition comprising progenitor cells that is sufficient to promote a particular effect when administered to a typical subject, such as one who has or is at risk for Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2).
  • An effective amount would also include an amount sufficient to prevent or delay the development of a symptom of the disease, alter the course of a symptom of the disease (for example but not limited to, slow the progression of a symptom of the disease), or reverse a symptom of the disease. It is understood that for any given case, an appropriate "effective amount" can be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using routine experimentation.
  • an effective amount of progenitor cells comprises at least 10 2 progenitor cells, at least 5 ⁇ 10 2 progenitor cells, at least 10 3 progenitor cells, at least 5 ⁇ 10 3 progenitor cells, at least 10 4 progenitor cells, at least 5 ⁇ 10 4 progenitor cells, at least 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 2 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 3 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 4 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 5 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 6 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 7 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 8 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 9 ⁇ 10 5 progenitor cells, at least 1 ⁇ 10 6 progenitor cells, at least 2 ⁇ 10 6 progenitor cells, at least 3 ⁇ 10 6 progenitor cells, at least 4 ⁇ 10 6 progenitor cells,
  • reduction of the expanded trinucleotide repeats in the ATXN2 gene in cells of patients having Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) can be beneficial for ameliorating one or more symptoms of the disease, for increasing long-term survival, and/or for reducing side effects associated with other treatments.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • the presence of progenitors that have wild-type or similar levels of the trinucleotide repeat in the ATXN2 gene is beneficial.
  • effective treatment of a subject gives rise to at least about 3%, 5% or 7% transcripts having wild-type or similar levels of trinucleotide repeat relative to total ATXN2 transcripts in the treated subject.
  • transcripts having wild-type or similar levels of trinucleotide repeat will be at least about 10% of total ATXN2 transcripts. In some examples, transcripts having wild-type or similar levels of trinucleotide repeat will be at least about 20% to 30% of total ATXN2 transcripts. Similarly, the introduction of even relatively limited subpopulations of cells having wild-type levels of trinucleotide repeat in the ATXN2 gene can be beneficial in various patients because in some situations normalized cells will have a selective advantage relative to diseased cells.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90% or more of the neural progenitors in patients to whom such cells are administered have wild-type or similar levels of trinucleotide repeat in the ATXN2 gene.
  • administering refers to the delivery of a progenitor cell composition into a subject by a method or route that results in at least partial localization of the cell composition at a desired site.
  • a cell composition can be administered by any appropriate route that results in effective treatment in the subject, i.e. administration results in delivery to a desired location in the subject where at least a portion of the composition delivered, i.e. at least 1 ⁇ 10 4 cells are delivered to the desired site for a period of time.
  • the pharmaceutical composition may be administered via a route such as, but not limited to, enteral (into the intestine), gastroenteral, epidural (into the dura matter), oral (by way of the mouth), transdermal, peridural, intracerebral (into the cerebrum), intracerebroventricular (into the cerebral ventricles), epicutaneous (application onto the skin), intradermal, (into the skin itself), subcutaneous (under the skin), nasal administration (through the nose), intravenous (into a vein), intravenous bolus, intravenous drip, intraarterial (into an artery), intramuscular (into a muscle), intracardiac (into the heart), intraosseous infusion (into the bone marrow), intrathecal (into the spinal canal), intraperitoneal, (infusion or injection into the peritoneum), intravesical infusion, intravitreal, (through the eye), intracavernous injection (into a pathologic cavity) intracavit)
  • Modes of administration include injection, infusion, instillation, and/or ingestion.
  • “Injection” includes, without limitation, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-arterial, intrathecal, intraventricular, intracapsular, intraorbital, intracardiac, intradermal, intraperitoneal, transtracheal, subcutaneous, subcuticular, intraarticular, sub capsular, subarachnoid, intraspinal, intracerebro spinal, and intrasternal injection and infusion.
  • the route is intravenous.
  • administration by injection or infusion can be made.
  • the cells can be administered systemically.
  • systemic administration refers to the administration of a population of progenitor cells other than directly into a target site, tissue, or organ, such that it enters, instead, the subject's circulatory system and, thus, is subject to metabolism and other like processes.
  • the efficacy of a treatment comprising a composition for the treatment of Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) can be determined by the skilled clinician. However, a treatment is considered "effective treatment,” if any one or all of the signs or symptoms of, as but one example, levels of trinucleotide repeat in the ATXN2 gene are altered in a beneficial manner (e.g., decreased by at least 10%), or other clinically accepted symptoms or markers of disease are improved or ameliorated. Efficacy can also be measured by failure of an individual to worsen as assessed by hospitalization or need for medical interventions (e.g., progression of the disease is halted or at least slowed). Methods of measuring these indicators are known to those of skill in the art and/or described herein.
  • Treatment includes any treatment of a disease in an individual or an animal (some non-limiting examples include a human, or a mammal) and includes: (1) inhibiting the disease, e.g., arresting, or slowing the progression of symptoms; or (2) relieving the disease, e.g., causing regression of symptoms; and (3) preventing or reducing the likelihood of the development of symptoms.
  • the treatment according to the present disclosure can ameliorate one or more symptoms associated with Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) by reducing the number of trinucleotide repeat in the ATXN2 gene in the individual.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • ATXN2 has been associated with diseases and disorders such as, but not limited to, Alzheimer's Disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Ataxia, Hereditary Ataxias, Autoimmune Diseases, Cardiovascular Diseases, Celiac Disease, Cerebellar Ataxia, Cerebellar Diseases, Chorea, Colonic Neoplasms, Deglutition Disorders, Presenile dementia, Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, Dyskinetic syndrome, Dystonia, Cardiac Arrest, Hyperphagia, Hypertensive disease, Chronic Kidney Failure, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Machado-Joseph Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Spinal Muscular Atrophy, Myoclonus, Neuroblastoma, Nystagmus, Obesity, Olivopontocerebellar Atrophies, Ovarian Carcinoma, Parkinson Disease, Peripheral Neuropathy, Restless Legs Syndrome, Retinal Degeneration, Retinitis Pigmentosa,
  • ATXN2 The activity of ATXN2 is largely confined to the central nervous system and ATXN2 is associated with Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) (also known as Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis type 13).
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • SCA2 is caused by expansion of a trinucleotide CAG repeat in the ATXN2 gene. This CAG repeat region is located in exon 1 of the ATXN2 gene and encodes a polyglutamine tract. Normally, the CAG trinucleotide is repeated 22 to 23 times, but it can be repeated up to 31 times without causing any symptoms.
  • the pathogenic ATXN2 allele usually contains 32 or more CAG repeats.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • SCA2 is an inherited (autosomal dominant), neurodegenerative disorder that affects upper motor neurons in the brain and lower motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord, eventually resulting in fatal paralysis.
  • SCA2 affects between 1-9 in 100,000 people worldwide and is most commonly present in the third or fourth decade.
  • SCA2 is most prevalent in the population of Cuba.
  • Common symptoms of Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) include progressive incoordination of gait and often poor coordination of hands, speech and eye movements, due to cerebellum degeneration with variable involvement of the brainstem and spinal cord.
  • Current treatments of Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) include physical therapy and exercise regimes to delay deterioration.
  • ATXN2 alleles containing intermediate repeat expansion significantly increase the risk of developing ALS ( Sproviero et al., Neurobiology of Aging. 51: 178.e1 (2017 )).
  • reduction of Atxn2 in a TDP43 mouse model of ALS reduces aggregation of TDP43 protein (a hallmark of ALS) and also substantially extends lifespan in this model ( Becker et al., Nature. 544:367 (2017 )).
  • the gRNAs that target the ATXN2 gene or near its regulatory regions can be used to reduce the levels of ATXN2.
  • the gRNAs can be used to eliminate or modify the expanded repeats in the ATXN2 gene in patients with ALS, potentially leading to therapeutic benefits.
  • the target tissue for the compositions and methods described herein is central nervous system tissue.
  • the gene is Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 Protein (ATXN2) which may also be referred to as Ataxin 2, Trinucleotide Repeat-Containing Gene 13 Protein, Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 Protein, TNRC13, SCA2, ATX2, Spinocerebellar Ataxia 2 (Olivopontocerebellar Ataxia 2, Autosomal Dominant, Ataxin 2), Trinucleotide Repeat Containing, and ASL13.
  • ATXN2 has a cytogenetic location of 12q24.12 and the genomic coordinate are on Chromosome 12 on the forward strand at position 111,452,214-111,599,676.
  • ATXN2 The nucleotide sequence of ATXN2 is shown as SEQ ID NO: 5303.
  • BRAP is the gene upstream of ATXN2 on the reverse strand
  • FAM109A is the gene downstream of ATXN2 on the reverse strand.
  • RP11-686G8.1 and RP11-686G8.2 are the genes located on the forward strand opposite of ATXN2.
  • U7, AC137055.1, and AC002395.1 are completely contained within ATXN2 on the same strain.
  • ATXN2 has a NCBI gene ID of 6311, Uniprot ID of Q99700 and Ensembl Gene ID of ENSG00000204842.
  • ATXN2 has 7303 SNPs, 95 introns and 93 exons.
  • Table 4 provides information on all of the transcripts for the ATXN2 gene based on the Ensembl database. Provided in Table 4 are the transcript ID from Ensembl and corresponding NCBI RefSeq ID for the transcript, the translation ID from Ensembl and the corresponding NCBI RefSeq ID for the protein, the biotype of the transcript sequence as classified by Ensembl and the exons and introns in the transcript based on the information in Table 3. Table 4.
  • ATXN2 has 7303 SNPs and the NCBI rs number and/or UniProt VAR number for this ATXN2 gene are rs10661, rs583140, rs587914, rs587949, rs593226, rs595529, rs596831, rs596853, rs597808, rs598710, rs598711, rs607316, rs610769, rs614591, rs615134, rs616513, rs616559, rs616668, rs617678, rs619010, rs621899, rs621900, rs625093, rs628825, rs629404, rs630512, rs638791, rs641084, rs642536, rs648997, rs650887, rs6531
  • the guide RNA used in the present disclosure may comprise at least one 20 nucleotide (nt) target nucleic acid sequence listed in Table 5.
  • nt nucleotide
  • Table 5 Provided in Table 5 are the gene symbol and the sequence identifier of the gene (Gene SEQ ID NO), the gene sequence including 1-5 kilobase pairs upstream and/or downstream of the target gene (Extended Gene SEQ ID NO), and the 20 nt target nucleic acid sequence (20 nt Target Sequence SEQ ID NO).
  • the strand for targeting the gene (noted by a (+) strand or (-) strand in the sequence listing), the associated PAM type and the PAM sequence are described for each of the 20 nt target nucleic acid sequences (SEQ ID NO: 5305-108,217). It is understood in the art that the spacer sequence, where "T” is "U,” may be an RNA sequence corresponding to the 20 nt sequences listed in Table 5. Table 5. Nucleic Acid Sequences Gene Symbol Gene SEQ ID NO Extended Gene SEQ ID NO 20 nt Target Sequence SEQ ID NO ATXN2 5303 5304 5305-108,217
  • the guide RNA used in the present disclosure may comprise at least one spacer sequence that, where "T” is "U”, may be an RNA sequence corresponding to a 20 nucleotide (nt) target sequence such as, but not limited to, any of SEQ ID NO: 5305-108,217.
  • nt 20 nucleotide
  • the guide RNA used in the present disclosure may comprise at least one spacer sequence which, where "T” is "U,” is an RNA sequence corresponding to the 20 nt sequences such as, but not limited to, any of SEQ ID NO: 5305-108,217.
  • a guide RNA may comprise a 20 nucleotide (nt) target nucleic acid sequence associated with the PAM type such as, but not limited to, NAAAAC, NNAGAAW, NNGRRT, NNNNGHTT, NRG, or YTN.
  • the 20 nt target nucleic acid sequence for a specific target gene and a specific PAM type may be, where "T" is "U,” the RNA sequence corresponding to any one of the 20 nt nucleic acid sequences in Table 6. Table 6.
  • a guide RNA may comprise a 20 nucleotide (nt) target nucleic acid sequence associated with the YTN PAM type.
  • the 20 nt target nucleic acid sequence for a specific target gene may comprise a 20 nt core sequence where the 20 nt core sequence, where "T" is "U,” may be the RNA sequence corresponding to SEQ ID NO: 55,474-108,217.
  • the 20 nt target nucleic acid sequence for a specific target gene may comprise a core sequence where the core sequence, where "T" is "U,” may be a fragment, segment or region of the RNA sequence corresponding to any of SEQ ID NO: 55,474-108,217.
  • nucleases engineered to target specific sequences there are four major types of nucleases: meganucleases and their derivatives, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator like effector nucleases (TALENs), and CRISPR-Cas9 nuclease systems.
  • ZFNs zinc finger nucleases
  • TALENs transcription activator like effector nucleases
  • CRISPR-Cas9 nuclease systems The nuclease platforms vary in difficulty of design, targeting density and mode of action, particularly as the specificity of ZFNs and TALENs is through protein-DNA interactions, while RNA-DNA interactions primarily guide Cas9.
  • CRISPR endonucleases such as Cas9
  • Cas9 can be used in the methods of the present disclosure.
  • teachings described herein, such as therapeutic target sites could be applied to other forms of endonucleases, such as ZFNs, TALENs, HEs, or MegaTALs, or using combinations of nucleases.
  • endonucleases such as ZFNs, TALENs, HEs, or MegaTALs, or using combinations of nucleases.
  • Additional binding domains can be fused to the Cas9 protein to increase specificity.
  • the target sites of these constructs would map to the identified gRNA specified site, but would require additional binding motifs, such as for a zinc finger domain.
  • a meganuclease can be fused to a TALE DNA-binding domain.
  • the meganuclease domain can increase specificity and provide the cleavage.
  • inactivated or dead Cas9 dCas9
  • dCas9 inactivated or dead Cas9
  • dCas9 can be fused to a cleavage domain and require the sgRNA/Cas9 target site and adjacent binding site for the fused DNA-binding domain. This likely would require some protein engineering of the dCas9, in addition to the catalytic inactivation, to decrease binding without the additional binding site.
  • Zinc finger nucleases are modular proteins comprised of an engineered zinc finger DNA binding domain linked to the catalytic domain of the type II endonuclease FokI. Because FokI functions only as a dimer, a pair of ZFNs must be engineered to bind to cognate target "half-site" sequences on opposite DNA strands and with precise spacing between them to enable the catalytically active FokI dimer to form. Upon dimerization of the FokI domain, which itself has no sequence specificity per se, a DNA double-strand break is generated between the ZFN half-sites as the initiating step in genome editing.
  • each ZFN is typically comprised of 3-6 zinc fingers of the abundant Cys2-His2 architecture, with each finger primarily recognizing a triplet of nucleotides on one strand of the target DNA sequence, although cross-strand interaction with a fourth nucleotide also can be important. Alteration of the amino acids of a finger in positions that make key contacts with the DNA alters the sequence specificity of a given finger. Thus, a four-finger zinc finger protein will selectively recognize a 12 bp target sequence, where the target sequence is a composite of the triplet preferences contributed by each finger, although triplet preference can be influenced to varying degrees by neighboring fingers.
  • ZFNs can be readily re-targeted to almost any genomic address simply by modifying individual fingers, although considerable expertise is required to do this well.
  • proteins of 4-6 fingers are used, recognizing 12-18 bp respectively.
  • a pair of ZFNs will typically recognize a combined target sequence of 24-36 bp, not including the typical 5-7 bp spacer between half-sites.
  • the binding sites can be separated further with larger spacers, including 15-17 bp.
  • a target sequence of this length is likely to be unique in the human genome, assuming repetitive sequences or gene homologs are excluded during the design process.
  • the ZFN protein-DNA interactions are not absolute in their specificity so off-target binding and cleavage events do occur, either as a heterodimer between the two ZFNs, or as a homodimer of one or the other of the ZFNs.
  • the latter possibility has been effectively eliminated by engineering the dimerization interface of the FokI domain to create "plus” and "minus” variants, also known as obligate heterodimer variants, which can only dimerize with each other, and not with themselves. Forcing the obligate heterodimer prevents formation of the homodimer. This has greatly enhanced specificity of ZFNs, as well as any other nuclease that adopts these FokI variants.
  • TALENs represent another format of modular nucleases whereby, as with ZFNs, an engineered DNA binding domain is linked to the FokI nuclease domain, and a pair of TALENs operate in tandem to achieve targeted DNA cleavage.
  • the major difference from ZFNs is the nature of the DNA binding domain and the associated target DNA sequence recognition properties.
  • the TALEN DNA binding domain derives from TALE proteins, which were originally described in the plant bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas sp.
  • TALEs are comprised of tandem arrays of 33-35 amino acid repeats, with each repeat recognizing a single base pair in the target DNA sequence that is typically up to 20 bp in length, giving a total target sequence length of up to 40 bp.
  • Nucleotide specificity of each repeat is determined by the repeat variable diresidue (RVD), which includes just two amino acids at positions 12 and 13.
  • RVD repeat variable diresidue
  • the bases guanine, adenine, cytosine and thymine are predominantly recognized by the four RVDs: Asn-Asn, Asn-Ile, His-Asp and Asn-Gly, respectively.
  • ZFNs the protein-DNA interactions of TALENs are not absolute in their specificity, and TALENs have also benefitted from the use of obligate heterodimer variants of the FokI domain to reduce off-target activity.
  • FokI domains have been created that are deactivated in their catalytic function. If one half of either a TALEN or a ZFN pair contains an inactive FokI domain, then only single-strand DNA cleavage (nicking) will occur at the target site, rather than a DSB.
  • the outcome is comparable to the use of CRISPR/Cas9 or CRISPR/Cpf1 "nickase" mutants in which one of the Cas9 cleavage domains has been deactivated.
  • DNA nicks can be used to drive genome editing by HDR, but at lower efficiency than with a DSB.
  • the main benefit is that off-target nicks are quickly and accurately repaired, unlike the DSB, which is prone to NHEJ-mediated mis-repair.
  • TALEN-based systems have been described in the art, and modifications thereof are regularly reported; see, e.g., Boch, Science 326(5959): 1509-12 (2009 ); Mak et al., Science 335(6069):716-9 (2012 ); and Moscou et al., Science 326(5959): 1501 (2009 ).
  • the use of TALENs based on the "Golden Gate” platform, or cloning scheme, has been described by multiple groups; see, e.g., Cermak et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 39(12):e82 (2011 ); Li et al., Nucleic Acids Res.
  • Homing endonucleases are sequence-specific endonucleases that have long recognition sequences (14-44 base pairs) and cleave DNA with high specificity - often at sites unique in the genome.
  • HEs can be used to create a DSB at a target locus as the initial step in genome editing.
  • some natural and engineered HEs cut only a single strand of DNA, thereby functioning as site-specific nickases.
  • the large target sequence of HEs and the specificity that they offer have made them attractive candidates to create site-specific DSBs.
  • the MegaTAL platform and Tev-mTALEN platform use a fusion of TALE DNA binding domains and catalytically active HEs, taking advantage of both the tunable DNA binding and specificity of the TALE, as well as the cleavage sequence specificity of the HE; see, e.g., Boissel et al., NAR 42: 2591-2601 (2014 ); Kleinstiver et al., G3 4:1155-65 (2014 ); and Boissel and Scharenberg, Methods Mol. Biol. 1239: 171-96 (2015 ).
  • the MegaTev architecture is the fusion of a meganuclease (Mega) with the nuclease domain derived from the GIY-YIG homing endonuclease I-TevI (Tev).
  • the two active sites are positioned ⁇ 30 bp apart on a DNA substrate and generate two DSBs with non-compatible cohesive ends; see, e.g., Wolfs et al., NAR 42, 8816-29 (2014 ). It is anticipated that other combinations of existing nuclease-based approaches will evolve and be useful in achieving the targeted genome modifications described herein.
  • the CRISPR genome editing system typically uses a single Cas9 endonuclease to create a DSB.
  • the specificity of targeting is driven by a 20 or 24 nucleotide sequence in the guide RNA that undergoes Watson-Crick base-pairing with the target DNA (plus an additional 2 bases in the adjacent NAG or NGG PAM sequence in the case of Cas9 from S. pyogenes ).
  • RNA/DNA interaction is not absolute, with significant promiscuity sometimes tolerated, particularly in the 5' half of the target sequence, effectively reducing the number of bases that drive specificity.
  • One solution to this has been to completely deactivate the Cas9 or Cpf1 catalytic function - retaining only the RNA-guided DNA binding function - and instead fusing a FokI domain to the deactivated Cas9; see, e.g., Tsai et al., Nature Biotech 32: 569-76 (2014 ); and Guilinger et al., Nature Biotech. 32: 577-82 (2014 ).
  • FokI must dimerize to become catalytically active, two guide RNAs are required to tether two FokI fusions in close proximity to form the dimer and cleave DNA. This essentially doubles the number of bases in the combined target sites, thereby increasing the stringency of targeting by CRISPR-based systems.
  • fusion of the TALE DNA binding domain to a catalytically active HE takes advantage of both the tunable DNA binding and specificity of the TALE, as well as the cleavage sequence specificity of I-TevI, with the expectation that off-target cleavage can be further reduced.
  • kits for carrying out the methods described herein.
  • a kit can include one or more of a genome-targeting nucleic acid, a polynucleotide encoding a genome-targeting nucleic acid, a site-directed polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding a site-directed polypeptide, and/or any nucleic acid or proteinaceous molecule necessary to carry out the aspects of the methods described herein, or any combination thereof.
  • a kit can comprise: (1) a vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a genome-targeting nucleic acid, (2) the site-directed polypeptide or a vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the site-directed polypeptide, and (3) a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution of the vector(s) and or polypeptide.
  • a kit can comprise: (1) a vector comprising (i) a nucleotide sequence encoding a genome-targeting nucleic acid, and (ii) a nucleotide sequence encoding the site-directed polypeptide; and (2) a reagent for reconstitution and/or dilution of the vector.
  • the kit can comprise a single-molecule guide genome-targeting nucleic acid. In any of the above kits, the kit can comprise a double-molecule genome-targeting nucleic acid. In any of the above kits, the kit can comprise two or more double-molecule guides or single-molecule guides.
  • the kits can comprise a vector that encodes the nucleic acid targeting nucleic acid.
  • the kit can further comprise a polynucleotide to be inserted to effect the desired genetic modification.
  • Components of a kit can be in separate containers, or combined in a single container.
  • kit described above can further comprise one or more additional reagents, where such additional reagents are selected from a buffer, a buffer for introducing a polypeptide or polynucleotide into a cell, a wash buffer, a control reagent, a control vector, a control RNA polynucleotide, a reagent for in vitro production of the polypeptide from DNA, adaptors for sequencing and the like.
  • a buffer can be a stabilization buffer, a reconstituting buffer, a diluting buffer, or the like.
  • a kit can also comprise one or more components that can be used to facilitate or enhance the on-target binding or the cleavage of DNA by the endonuclease, or improve the specificity of targeting.
  • a kit can further comprise instructions for using the components of the kit to practice the methods.
  • the instructions for practicing the methods can be recorded on a suitable recording medium.
  • the instructions can be printed on a substrate, such as paper or plastic, etc.
  • the instructions can be present in the kits as a package insert, in the labeling of the container of the kit or components thereof ( i.e., associated with the packaging or subpackaging), etc.
  • the instructions can be present as an electronic storage data file present on a suitable computer readable storage medium, e.g. CD-ROM, diskette, flash drive, etc.
  • the actual instructions are not present in the kit, but means for obtaining the instructions from a remote source (e.g. via the Internet), can be provided.
  • An example of this case is a kit that comprises a web address where the instructions can be viewed and/or from which the instructions can be downloaded. As with the instructions, this means for obtaining the instructions can be recorded on a suitable substrate.
  • compositions, methods, therapeutics and respective component(s) thereof are essential to the present disclosure, yet open to the inclusion of unspecified elements, whether essential or not.
  • compositions, methods, therapeutics and respective components thereof as described herein, which are exclusive of any element not recited in that description of the aspect.
  • any numerical range recited in this specification describes all sub-ranges of the same numerical precision (i.e., having the same number of specified digits) subsumed within the recited range.
  • a recited range of "1.0 to 10.0” describes all sub-ranges between (and including) the recited minimum value of 1.0 and the recited maximum value of 10.0, such as, for example, "2.4 to 7.6," even if the range of "2.4 to 7.6" is not expressly recited in the text of the specification. Accordingly, the Applicant reserves the right to amend this specification, including the claims, to expressly recite any sub-range of the same numerical precision subsumed within the ranges expressly recited in this specification.
  • the examples describe the use of the CRISPR system as an illustrative genome editing technique to create defined therapeutic genomic deletions, insertions, or replacements, termed "genomic modifications" herein, in the ATXN2 gene that lead to permanent deletion or correction of expanded trinucleotide repeats in the ATXN2 gene, knock-out of the ATXN2 gene, or correction of the entire gene, that restore the wild-type or similar levels of trinucleotide repeats in the ATXN2 gene and/or eliminate aberrant ATXN2 gene products.
  • Introduction of the defined therapeutic modifications represents a novel therapeutic strategy for the potential amelioration of Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2), as described and illustrated herein.
  • SCA2 Spinocerebellar ataxia 2
  • Example 1 CRISPR/ S . pyogenes (Sp)Cas9 target sites for the ATXN2 gene
  • Regions of the ATXN2 gene were scanned for target sites. Each area was scanned for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) having the sequence NRG. gRNA 20 bp spacer sequences corresponding to the PAM were then identified, as shown in SEQ ID NOs: 15,946-55,473 of the Sequence Listing.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • Example 2 CRISPR/ S . aureus (Sa)Cas9 target sites for the ATXN2 gene
  • Regions of the ATXN2 gene were scanned for target sites. Each area was scanned for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) having the sequence NNGRRT. gRNA 20 bp spacer sequences corresponding to the PAM were then identified, as shown in SEQ ID NOs: 7395-11,810 of the Sequence Listing.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • Regions of the ATXN2 gene were scanned for target sites. Each area was scanned for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) having the sequence NNAGAAW. gRNA 20 bp spacer sequences corresponding to the PAM were then identified, as shown in SEQ ID NOs: 6020-7394 of the Sequence Listing.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • Example 4 CRISPR/ T . denticola (Td)Cas9 target sites for the ATXN2 gene
  • Regions of the ATXN2 gene were scanned for target sites. Each area was scanned for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) having the sequence NAAAAC. gRNA 20 bp spacer sequences corresponding to the PAM were then identified, as shown in SEQ ID NOs: 5305-6019 of the Sequence Listing.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • Example 5 CRISPR/ N . meningitidis (Nm)Cas9 target sites for the ATXN2 gene
  • Regions of the ATXN2 gene were scanned for target sites. Each area was scanned for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) having the sequence NNNNGHTT. gRNA 20 bp spacer sequences corresponding to the PAM were then identified, as shown in SEQ ID NOs: 11,811-15,945 of the Sequence Listing.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • Regions of the ATXN2 gene were scanned for target sites. Each area was scanned for a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) having the sequence TTN or YTN. gRNA 20 bp spacer sequences corresponding to the PAM were then identified, as shown in SEQ ID NOs: 55,474-108,217 of the Sequence Listing.
  • PAM protospacer adjacent motif
  • Candidate guides were then screened and selected in a single process or multi-step process that involves both theoretical binding and experimentally assessed activity at both on-target and off-target sites.
  • candidate guides having sequences that match a particular on-target site such as a site within the ATXN2 gene, with adjacent PAM can be assessed for their potential to cleave at off-target sites having similar sequences, using one or more of a variety of bioinformatics tools available for assessing off-target binding, as described and illustrated in more detail below, in order to assess the likelihood of effects at chromosomal positions other than those intended.
  • Preferred guides have sufficiently high on-target activity to achieve desired levels of gene editing at the selected locus, and relatively lower off-target activity to reduce the likelihood of alterations at other chromosomal loci.
  • the ratio of on-target to off-target activity is often referred to as the "specificity" of a guide.
  • COSMID CRISPR Off-target Sites with Mismatches, Insertions and Deletions
  • Other bioinformatics tools include, but are not limited to autoCOSMID and CCtop.
  • Bioinformatics were used to minimize off-target cleavage in order to reduce the detrimental effects of mutations and chromosomal rearrangements.
  • Studies on CRISPR/Cas9 systems suggested the possibility of off-target activity due to non-specific hybridization of the guide strand to DNA sequences with base pair mismatches and/or bulges, particularly at positions distal from the PAM region. Therefore, it is important to have a bioinformatics tool that can identify potential off-target sites that have insertions and/or deletions between the RNA guide strand and genomic sequences, in addition to base-pair mismatches.
  • Bioinformatics tools based upon the off-target algorithm CCTop were used to search genomes for potential CRISPR off-target sites (CCTop is available on the web at crispr.cos.uni-heidelberg.de/).
  • Additional bioinformatics pipelines were employed that weigh the estimated on- and/or off-target activity of gRNA targeting sites in a region.
  • Other features that may be used to predict activity include information about the cell type in question, DNA accessibility, chromatin state, transcription factor binding sites, transcription factor binding data, and other CHIP-seq data. Additional factors are weighed that predict editing efficiency, such as relative positions and directions of pairs of gRNAs, local sequence features and micro-homologies.
  • gRNAs targeting exon 1 can be used to insert full length cDNA of ATXN2 for replacing the mutated endogenous ATXN2 gene and restoring protein expression.
  • Guide RNAs targeting exon 1 can be used to target the expanded repeats. Pairs of gRNAs on either side of the expanded repeat sequence can be used to excise the expanded repeats. gRNAs overlapping with expanded repeat sequence can be used to induce partial or full contraction of the repeats.
  • gRNAs can be used to alleviate the epigenetic changes that occur at the ATXN2 allele with expanded repeats and restore ATXN2 expression.
  • gRNAs can also be used to edit one or more nucleotides, exonic sequences and/or intronic sequences.
  • Initial bioinformatics analysis identified 39,528 gRNAs targeting the ATXN2 gene. From the initial set of SpCas9 gRNAs, further analysis identified 532 gRNAs targeting within exon 1, the region upstream of exon 1, and the region downstream of exon 1. This targeted subset of gRNAs was further analyzed for predicted off-target sites (having ⁇ 3 base mismatches) or overlap with an SNP (>0.01 frequency) and these were eliminated. The evaluation resulted in a pool of 48 gRNAs selected for screening. The prioritized list of 48 single gRNAs targeting the ATXN2 gene were tested for cutting efficiencies using SpCas9 (Table 7). Table 7 SEQ ID NO.
  • SEQ ID NOs represent the DNA sequence of the genomic target, while the gRNA or sgRNA spacer sequence will be the RNA version of the DNA sequence.
  • Example 8 Testing of preferred guides in in vitro transcribed (IVT) gRNA screen
  • IVT in vitro transcribed gRNA screen was conducted.
  • the relevant genomic sequence was submitted for analysis using a gRNA design software.
  • the resulting list of gRNAs was narrowed to a select list of gRNAs as described above based on uniqueness of sequence (only gRNAs without a perfect match somewhere else in the genome were screened) and minimal predicted off targets.
  • This set of gRNAs was in vitro transcribed, and transfected using Lipofectamine MessengerMAX into HEK293T cells that constitutively express Cas9. Cells were harvested 48 hours post transfection, the genomic DNA was isolated, and cutting efficiency was evaluated using TIDE analysis. ( Figures 2-3 ).
  • the gRNA or pairs of gRNA with significant activity can then be followed up in cultured cells to measure correction of the ATXN2 mutation. Off-target events can be followed again. A variety of cells can be transfected and the level of gene correction and possible off-target events measured. These experiments allow optimization of nuclease and donor design and delivery.
  • gRNAs having the best on-target activity from the IVT screen in the above example are tested for off-target activity using Hybrid capture assays, GUIDE Seq. and whole genome sequencing in addition to other methods.
  • donor DNA template will be provided as a short single-stranded oligonucleotide, a short double-stranded oligonucleotide (PAM sequence intact/PAM sequence mutated), a long single-stranded DNA molecule (PAM sequence intact/PAM sequence mutated) or a long double-stranded DNA molecule (PAM sequence intact/PAM sequence mutated).
  • the donor DNA template will be delivered by AAV.
  • a single-stranded or double-stranded DNA having homologous arms to the ATXN2 chromosomal region may include more than 40 nt of the first exon (the first coding exon) of the ATXN2 gene, the complete CDS of the ATXN2 gene and 3' UTR of the ATXN2 gene, and at least 40 nt of the following intron.
  • the single-stranded or double-stranded DNA having homologous arms to the ATXN2 chromosomal region may include more than 80 nt of the first exon of the ATXN2 gene, the complete CDS of the ATXN2 gene and 3' UTR of the ATXN2 gene, and at least 80 nt of the following intron.
  • the single-stranded or double-stranded DNA having homologous arms to the ATXN2 chromosomal region may include more than 100 nt of the first exon of the ATXN2 gene, the complete CDS of the ATXN2 gene and 3' UTR of the ATXN2 gene, and at least 100 nt of the following intron.
  • the single-stranded or double-stranded DNA having homologous arms to the ATXN2 chromosomal region may include more than 150 nt of the first exon of the ATXN2 gene, the complete CDS of the ATXN2 gene and 3' UTR of the ATXN2 gene, and at least 150 nt of the following intron.
  • the single-stranded or double-stranded DNA having homologous arms to the ATXN2 chromosomal region may include more than 300 nt of the first exon of the ATXN2 gene, the complete CDS of the ATXN2 gene and 3' UTR of the ATXN2 gene, and at least 300 nt of the following intron.
  • the single-stranded or double-stranded DNA having homologous arms to the ATXN2 chromosomal region may include more than 400 nt of the first exon of the ATXN2 gene, the complete CDS of the ATXN2 gene and 3' UTR of the ATXN2 gene, and at least 400 nt of the following intron.
  • the DNA template will be delivered by a recombinant AAV particle, or other delivery vectors, such as those taught herein.
  • a knock-in of ATXN2 cDNA can be performed into any selected chromosomal location or in one of the safe harbor locus, i.e., AAVS1 (intron 1 of PPP1R12C), HPRT, H11, hRosa26 and/or F-A region.
  • cDNA knock-in into safe harbor loci such as: single-stranded or double-stranded DNA having homologous arms to one of the following regions, for example: exon 1, intron 1 or exon 2 of PPP1R12C; exon 1, intron 1 or exon 2 of HPRT; and/or exon 1, intron 1 or exon 2 of hRosa26; 5'UTR correspondent to ATXN2 or alternative 5' UTR, complete CDS of ATXN2 and 3' UTR of ATXN2 or modified 3' UTR and at least 80 nt of the first intron, alternatively same DNA template sequence will be delivered by AAV or other viral (or non-viral) delivery vector.
  • AAV or other viral (or non-viral) delivery vector.
  • Cas9 mRNA or RNP will be formulated into lipid nanoparticles for delivery
  • sgRNAs will be formulated into nanoparticles or delivered as a recombinant AAV particle
  • donor DNA will be formulated into nanoparticles or delivered as recombinant AAV particle.
  • Example 12 In vivo testing in relevant animal model
  • the lead formulations will be tested in vivo in an animal model.
  • Preclinical efficacy and safety evaluations can be observed through engraftment of modified mouse or human neurons in a mouse model.
  • the modified cells can be observed in the months after engraftment.
  • Claims or descriptions that include "or" between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context.
  • the present disclosure includes examples in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.
  • the present disclosure includes examples in which more than one, or the entire group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.
  • any particular example of the present disclosure that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Since such examples are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular example of the compositions of the present disclosure (e.g., any antibiotic, therapeutic or active ingredient; any method of production; any method of use; etc.) can be excluded from any one or more claims, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

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Claims (15)

  1. ARN guide monomoléculaire spécifique de la Cas9 de S. pyogenes comprenant au moins une séquence d'espaceur qui est une séquence d'ARN correspondant à l'une quelconque des SEQ ID NO : 34621, 34565, 34606, 54554, 34437, 34563, 54418, 34632, 34446, 54409, 54671, 54693, 54539, 54408, 54555, 54694, 34505 ou 54695.
  2. ARN guide monomoléculaire selon la revendication 1, dans lequel l'ARN guide monomoléculaire comprend en outre une région d'extension d'espaceur, une région d'extension d'ARNtracr, ou une combinaison de celles-ci, et/ou dans lequel l'ARN guide monomoléculaire est modifié chimiquement.
  3. ARN guide monomoléculaire selon la revendication 1 ou 2, dans lequel l'ARN guide monomoléculaire est pré-complexé avec une endonucléase Cas9 de S. pyogenes.
  4. ARN guide monomoléculaire selon la revendication 3, dans lequel l'endonucléase Cas9 de S. pyogenes comprend un ou plusieurs signaux de localisation nucléaire au niveau de ou dans les 50 acides aminés de l'extrémité amino et/ou l'extrémité carboxy de l'endonucléase Cas9 de S. pyogenes.
  5. ADN codant pour l'ARN guide monomoléculaire selon la revendication 1 ou 2.
  6. Composition pharmaceutique comprenant au moins un ou plusieurs parmi le ou les ARN guides monomoléculaires selon l'une quelconque des revendications 1 à 4 ou l'ADN selon la revendication 5.
  7. ARN guide monomoléculaire selon l'une quelconque des revendications 1 à 4 ou l'ADN selon la revendication 5 pour une utilisation dans le traitement d'un état ou d'un trouble lié à la protéine de l'ataxie spinocérébelleuse de type 2 (ATXN2) comprenant l'édition du gène ATXN2 dans une cellule d'un patient.
  8. Procédé d'édition d'un gène ATXN2 dans une cellule par édition génomique comprenant l'introduction dans la cellule :
    d'une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes ou d'un ou plusieurs polynucléotides codant pour les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes ; et
    d'un ou plusieurs ARN guides monomoléculaires (ARNsg) selon la revendication 1 ou 2 ou d'un ou plusieurs ADN selon la revendication 5 ;
    pour effectuer une ou plusieurs ruptures de simple brin ou ruptures de double brin à l'intérieur ou à proximité du gène ATXN2 qui entraînent une délétion permanente dans la répétition trinucléotidique expansée ou un remplacement d'une ou plusieurs bases nucléotidiques, ou d'un ou plusieurs exons et/ou introns à l'intérieur ou à proximité du gène ATXN2, restaurant ainsi la fonction du gène ATXN2,
    dans lequel le procédé n'est pas un procédé de traitement thérapeutique du corps humain ou animal, et
    dans lequel le procédé n'est pas un procédé de modification de l'identité génétique d'une lignée germinale d'êtres humains.
  9. Procédé selon la revendication 8, dans lequel les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont flanquées à l'extrémité N-terminale, à l'extrémité C-terminale ou à la fois à l'extrémité N-terminale et à l'extrémité C-terminale par un ou plusieurs signaux de localisation nucléaire.
  10. Procédé selon les revendications 8 ou 9, dans lequel les un ou plusieurs ARNsg sont modifiés chimiquement, et/ou les un ou plusieurs ARNsg comprennent trois résidus 2'-O-méthyl-phosphorothioate au niveau de ou à proximité de chacune de leurs extrémités 5' et 3'.
  11. Procédé selon l'une quelconque des revendications 8 à 10, dans lequel les un ou plusieurs polynucléotides codant pour les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont un ou plusieurs ADN ou ARN codant pour les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes, dans lequel les un ou plusieurs polynucléotides codant pour les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont optimisés en codons.
  12. Procédé selon la revendication 11, dans lequel les un ou plusieurs ARN codant pour les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont modifiés chimiquement, éventuellement dans lequel la modification chimique se trouve dans la région codante.
  13. Procédé selon l'une quelconque des revendications 8 à 12, dans lequel les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont formulées dans une nanoparticule de liposome ou de lipide, qui comprend éventuellement en outre les un ou plusieurs ARNsg ; ou les une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont codées dans une particule de vecteur AAV, qui code éventuellement en outre les un ou plusieurs ARNsg ; ou les un ou plusieurs ARNsg sont codés dans une particule de vecteur AAV.
  14. Procédé selon l'une quelconque des revendications 8 à 13, dans lequel le procédé comprend en outre l'introduction dans la cellule d'une matrice donneuse comprenant au moins une partie du gène ATXN2 de type sauvage, dans lequel l'au moins une partie du gène ATXN2 de type sauvage comprend une ou plusieurs séquences choisies dans le groupe constitué par un exon d'ATXN2, un intron d'ATXN2, et une séquence comprenant une jonction exon/intron d'ATXN2 .
  15. Procédé selon la revendication 14, dans lequel la matrice donneuse est codée dans une particule de vecteur AAV ; les un ou plusieurs polynucléotides codant pour une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont formulés dans une nanoparticule lipidique, et/ou les un ou plusieurs ARNsg sont délivrés à la cellule ex vivo par électroporation, et la matrice donneuse est délivrée à la cellule par un vecteur AAV ; ou les un ou plusieurs polynucléotides codant pour une ou plusieurs endonucléases Cas9 de S. pyogenes sont formulés dans une nanoparticule de liposome ou de lipide qui comprend également les un ou plusieurs ARNsg et la matrice donneuse.
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