CN104829059B - Urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system - Google Patents
Urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system Download PDFInfo
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Abstract
The invention discloses a kind of urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system, including apparatus main body (1), described apparatus main body (1) is the semi-cylindrical uncovered framework that multiple coaxially connected radius is identical, the spindle central of apparatus main body (1) is positioned at semicircle circle centre position, the top layer of apparatus main body (1) is provided with combined type vegetable layer (2), middle part is provided with multiple rotary multimedium filter layer (3), bottom is provided with original position soil layer (4), each rotary multimedium filter layer (3) is connected with sedimentation basin (5) by flexible pipe respectively；The rotating shaft top of apparatus main body (1) is connected with bracing frame (7), and bracing frame (7) is provided with rainfall simulator (6).The present invention establishes a dynamics water quality purifying ecological landscape system with complex function, and to meet different quality emission request and urban look demand, apparatus structure is simply compact, easy to realization simultaneously, easy to use, efficiency is high.
Description
Technical field
The present invention relates to urban water-body ecological purification and process field of engineering technology, especially a kind of urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system, can the diafiltration clean scheme of Fast simulation various combination, provide certain scientific basis for the manufacture of urban rainwater purification device and application.
Background technology
In recent years, along with socioeconomic development, urbanization process is accelerated, the industrial structure and population occupation are not only changed, more change Land_use change and regional space, forest, farmland, wetland etc. constantly change into residence, industrial land or commercial land, city waterproof region area proportion is drastically strengthened, cause evapotranspiration, precipitation, characteristics of Runoff change, change the process of city water cycle, causing runoff coefficient and run-off to increase, extreme precipitation event increases, and urban storm flooding risk strengthens.
Modes for Urban Stormwater Runoff Pollution refers to that surface sediments enters water body with atmospheric fallout etc. under Rainfall simulator erosion effect, causes the process that urban water environmental quality declines.The substantial amounts of nutriment of urban runoff is transported in river or lake along with surface runoff, the concentration that can cause water body Middle nutrition material increases, cause the amount reproduction of algae and other water plants, destruction Dissolved Oxygen in Water balances, make water body sensory symptoms deteriorate, bring the biggest harm eventually to whole ecological environment.Simultaneously, Fast Urbanization causes urban industry waste water and sanitary sewage to increase, the river course structure in city tends to simplify and channelization, in addition urban land use changes, urban river water system is reduced, river channel sedimentation or disappearance, reduce river water storage water drainage and the ability of dirty self-cleaning received, the a large amount of runoffs causing rainy day especially rainstorm weather to produce can only be highlighted to receiving water body, the impact on water environment by discharge of pipes.In addition, Modes for Urban Stormwater Runoff Pollution is due to the complexity of its randomness, unstability and urban surface, having become as city receiving water body deteriorating water quality and the important sources of city estuary pollution, it controls to also become, with governing problem, emphasis and the difficult point improving water environment.
At present, Modes for Urban Stormwater Runoff Pollution thing is studied using suspended material, rich nutritive material, oxygen demand material, heavy metal and other toxic pollutant as primary pollution source both at home and abroad, pollutant sources is extensive, Regional Distribution otherness is bigger, it is difficult with certain fixing technology and device for zones of different, under the conditions of varying environment, the water quality of rainfall runoff carries out purified treatment；City has special Hydrologic Structure, and the control technology for Modes for Urban Stormwater Runoff Pollution process is the most unique.The control technology of domestic and international existing Modes for Urban Stormwater Runoff Pollution process is with the process of runoff pollution as break-through point, mainly include setting up sedimentation basin, cistern, use artificial swamp and water ecology recovery technique etc., but functional more unification and purification efficiency are relatively low, the especially process to runoff combined pollution is the most inadequate, furthers investigate the control technology of rainfall runoff in the urgent need to Binding experiment, grasps runoff pollution dynamic changing process of water quantity and quality under each purification scheme；Outdoor field experiment and monitoring process are only capable of the rainwater purification effect reflecting under a certain specified conditions or scheme, under the conditions of Different climate can not being reflected, different raininess, the different factor impact on rainwater diafiltration clean such as vegetation type, various Filled Dielectrics composition, different time and space, and mostly there is occupation of land extensively in outdoor experimental provision, easily environment is caused secondary pollution, the problems such as production cost is high；Existing relevant rainwater purification analogue experiment installation only has single main body mostly, connects remaining device and carry out supporting outside needing, and can complete the simulated experiment of rainfall runoff purification of water quality, operation complexity, is not easy to combination installation and transports.
Summary of the invention
For the deficiencies in the prior art, the present invention provides a kind of urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system, this system relies on the natural flow of Urban Rain to complete the stage purification to water quality, by the filler in each dielectric layer of rotational displacement analogue means, the diafiltration clean scheme of various combination can be made, carry out filtration system difference and load ratio and the simulation of method, and the water quality of lower seepage paths flow point layer water outlet is monitored, the convenient purge cases grasping each dielectric layer, apparatus structure is the compactest simultaneously, it is easily achieved, easy to use, efficiency is high, it is easy to combination installation and transport.
The present invention is to be realized by following technical scheme:
A kind of urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system, including apparatus main body 1, described apparatus main body 1 is the semi-cylindrical uncovered framework that multiple coaxially connected radius is identical, the spindle central of apparatus main body 1 is positioned at semicircle circle centre position, the top layer of apparatus main body 1 is provided with combined type vegetable layer 2, middle part is provided with multiple rotary multimedium filter layer 3, bottom is provided with original position soil layer 4, and each rotary multimedium filter layer 3 is connected with sedimentation basin 5 by flexible pipe respectively；The rotating shaft top of apparatus main body 1 is connected with bracing frame 7, and bracing frame 7 is provided with rainfall simulator 6.
Set in described combined type vegetable layer 2 in vegetation growth soil horizon 2-4, vegetation growth soil horizon 2-4 are provided with permeable pavement thin layer 2-3, vegetation growth soil horizon 2-4 to plant and be implanted with dungarunga 2-1 and low brushwood 2-2.
Described rotary multimedium filter layer 3 includes multiple rotation cell body 3-1, for depositing different fillers；Rotate and on the semi-cylindrical outer wall of cell body 3-1, have discharge outlet 3-3, rotate and be provided with dowel bushing 3-4 on the rear wall of cell body 3-1, be fixed by shop bolt 3-6 between the plurality of rotation cell body 3-1；The bottom of each rotation cell body 3-1 is a thin layer porous permeable dividing plate 3-5；Being provided with cross section in each rotation cell body 3-1 is fan-shaped afflux groove 3-2, and afflux groove 3-2 upper surface has seepage flow hole 3-7, and afflux groove 3-2 outer wall is provided with and rotates cell body discharge outlet 3-3 level delivery port 3-8；Described delivery port 3-8 is connected by flexible pipe 3-9 with discharge outlet 3-3.
Setting the thin layer porous permeable dividing plate 4-1 and tilted-putted movable dropping plate 4-2 of horizontal positioned in bottom described original position soil layer 4, on original position soil layer 4 outer wall, centered by rotating shaft, symmetry has discharge outlet 4-3, and rear wall is provided with dowel bushing 4-4；Described discharge outlet 4-3 is connected with filtrate collecting tank by flexible pipe 4-5.Described movable dropping plate 4-2 is scalable fixing compoboard, for the accommodating space and can regulate compoboard length in real time to change the angle of inclination of dropping plate of percolate bottom the size of simulated rainfall intensity and original position soil layer, increases or reduce percolate flowing velocity.
Described sedimentation basin 5 is single van-type, is provided with water inlet 5-1, delivery port 5-2, the vertically disposed power of subtracting dividing plate 5-3 and horizontally disposed filter screen thin plate 5-4；Filter opening 5-5 is had on described filter screen thin plate 5-4；Described sedimentation basin 5 is connected with discharge outlet 3-3 rotated on cell body 3-1 outer wall by flexible pipe.
The size of described sedimentation basin can be designed according to regional characteristics, mainly carrying out according to Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering settling pit design specification (SL 269-2001), rectangle list van-type sedimentation basin mainly determines that active length, working width and working depth can make the basic size of sedimentation basin.
Described rainfall simulator 6 includes rainfall shower nozzle 6-1 and water inlet conduit 6-2；There is spray apertures 6-3 on described rainfall shower nozzle 6-1 surface；The outer water pump of described water inlet conduit 6-2 or simple water supply installation.
Support frame as described above 7 includes support bar 7-1 and attachment means 7-2, is used for connecting rainfall simulator 6 and apparatus main body 1.
Order rotates the number of cell body 3-1 and is N with afflux groove 3-2 number, and each central angle number of degrees corresponding for afflux groove 3-2 are 180 °/N；It is initial with the side of rotation cell body 3-1, first afflux groove 3-2 rotated in cell body 3-1 is placed on first position corresponding to the central angle number of degrees, second afflux groove 3-2 rotated in cell body 3-1 is placed on second position corresponding to the central angle number of degrees, by that analogy, the dislocation of afflux groove 3-2 solid is placed in rotation cell body 3-1, each sectional elevation only has the vertical section of an afflux groove 3-2.Above-mentioned way makes the sample oozed under the rainfall runoff that afflux groove is collected all obtain after a flood filler purifies, and embodies accuracy and the preciseness of unit simulation experiment.
Compared with prior art, the present invention obtains following beneficial effect:
1, rainfall simulator, layering purification simulation device and sedimentation basin are organically combined composition hybrid system by the present invention cleverly, be conducive to carrying out the further investigation of runoff pollution control technology, fixing between each device is connected by general connection, convenient combination, device material range of choice is extensive, and metal, lucite or aluminium alloy all may be used.
2, the structure that the present invention is arranged need not any extra power and assists, the simulated experiment of whole system is based entirely on the natural flow of rainfall runoff, and then realize the layering purified treatment of rainfall runoff, simple in construction, easy to operate, it is possible to effectively to simulate the change procedure of urban rainfall runoff water quantity and quality under different purification scheme.
3, the present invention considers the Hydrologic Structure that city is unique conscientiously, it is provided with the combined type vegetable layer that can incorporate urban look key element, not only give full play to the catharsis of vegetation natural, ecological, and reach the effect of beautifying city view, the beneficially research of rainfall runoff combined pollution.
4, the rainfall simulator that the present invention is arranged is connected with layering purification simulation apparatus main body by bracing frame, outer water pump and water tank, flow is adjusted by the aperture that can use adjustable speed water pump or adjustment Cistern valve, and then the rainfall of offer varying strength, beneficially under changing environment, runoff pollution controls the research of technology.
5, the present invention arranges the layer-stepping rotation cell body of uniqueness, and before unused shop bolt is fixing, each cell body can do 360 degree of rotations around central shaft, and scope of activities is wide, and flexibility is strong；When being not added with rotary shaft support bar, apparatus main body becomes released state, and each cell body that rotates is from becoming monomer, apparatus main body takes up room and die-offs, convenient transport so that analogue means strengthens at zones of different transplantability spatially, the beneficially areal study of runoff pollution purification treatment technology.
6, each rotation cell body is combined by the present invention by support bar, for avoiding extraneous factor in experimentation to cause rotation cell body displacement to affect experimental result, each rotation is provided with dowel bushing especially on cell body, and carries out secondary with shop bolt and fix rotating cell body.
7, the present invention arranges distinctive afflux groove in swivelling chute body, and to rotate, cell body is semi-cylindrical is configured to support, the structure of afflux groove is configured to segment dexterously, it is simple to give the position of segment according to the number rotating cell body.
8, in the present invention, the bottom of afflux groove is arc, not only increases water yield, and is easy to the drainage of delivery port and then obtains experiment test sample.
9, the sedimentation basin used in the present invention has unique construction, inside sets and subtracts power dividing plate and filter screen thin plate.Subtract power dividing plate and can cut down the impulsive force of current, be conducive to precipitation.Filter screen separator makes sample carry out the filtering and standing of profound level, it is to avoid the impact of impurity supernatant samples used on experiment.
Generally require when 10, measuring water quality corresponding index and sample is stood, take supernatant and test.In view of the foregoing, the present invention arranges rectangle list van-type sedimentation basin dexterously and is connected with apparatus main body, for the precipitation of rainfall runoff layering purified treatment sample, has expanded the function of analogue means, integrates simulated experiment and sample preliminary treatment, convenient and swift.
Accompanying drawing explanation
Fig. 1 is the overall structure schematic diagram of the present invention.
Fig. 2 is the schematic longitudinal section of combined type vegetable layer.
Fig. 3 is the structural representation at the rotary multimedium filter layer back side.
Fig. 4 is the structural representation of rotary multimedium filter layer.
Fig. 5 is the structural representation of afflux groove.
Fig. 6 is the structural representation of original position soil layer.
Fig. 7 a is the front view of original position soil layer.
Fig. 7 b is that the A-A of Fig. 7 a is to profile；
Fig. 8 is the structural representation of sedimentation basin.
Fig. 9 a is the side view of sedimentation basin；
Fig. 9 b is that the B-B of Fig. 9 a is to profile.
Figure 10 a is the structural representation of rainfall simulator；
Figure 10 b is the partial enlarged drawing of Figure 10 a.
Figure 11 is the structural representation of bracing frame.
In figure, 1 is apparatus main body, and 2 is combined type vegetable layer, and 2-1 is dungarunga, and 2-2 is low brushwood, and 2-3 is permeable pavement thin layer, and 2-4 is vegetation growth soil horizon；
3 is rotary multimedium filter layer, and 3-1 is for rotating cell body, and 3-2 is afflux groove, and 3-3 is discharge outlet, and 3-4 is dowel bushing, and 3-5 is thin layer porous permeable dividing plate, and 3-6 is shop bolt, and 3-7 is seepage flow hole, and 3-8 is delivery port, and 3-9 is flexible pipe；
4 is original position soil layer, and 4-1 is thin layer porous permeable dividing plate, and 4-2 is movable dropping plate, and 4-3 is discharge outlet, and 4-4 is dowel bushing, and 4-5 is flexible pipe；
5 is sedimentation basin, and 5-1 is water inlet, and 5-2 is delivery port, and 5-3 is for subtracting power dividing plate, and 5-4 is filter screen thin plate, and 5-5 is filter opening；
6 is rainfall simulator, and 6-1 is rainfall shower nozzle, and 6-2 is water inlet conduit, and 6-3 is spray apertures；
7 is bracing frame, and 7-1 is support bar, and 7-2 is attachment means.
Detailed description of the invention
As shown in figs. 1-11, the present invention is urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system under a kind of artificial rainfall condition, and it includes apparatus main body, combined type vegetable layer, rotary multimedium filter layer, original position soil layer, sedimentation basin, rainfall simulator and bracing frame.
Fig. 2 to Figure 11 is the structural representation of each several part of the present invention.Wherein, the experiment sample in combined type vegetable layer shown in Fig. 2 need to be adjusted changing for survey region, and combined type vegetable layer longitudinal plane structure is dungarunga layer of plants, short shrub layer, permeable pavement layer, vegetation growth soil horizon the most from top to bottom.Described dungarunga layer of plants and short shrub layer are all uniformly laying, and each layer distribution proportion of vegetation actual with survey region is consistent；Described permeable pavement layer uses turf or brick layer, transplants survey region true pave-load layer material, it is ensured that the authenticity of experiment and accuracy as far as possible；Described vegetation growth edaphic place mat height is 5-10cm, determines according to the development degree of selected root system of plant.
Fig. 3 to Fig. 5 is the schematic diagram of rotary multi-medium-layer.As it can be seen, rotary multi-medium-layer comprises multiple identical rotation cell body.The present invention provides a kind of diafiltration clean scheme, and filler is followed successively by the zeolite of 2:7:1, medical stone and granule, coarse sand and fine sand, rubble from top to bottom.
A kind of diafiltration clean scheme that the present invention provides, wherein said granule filler has the highest absorption degradation performance, and raw material is cheap and simply easily takes, it is used in mixed way with zeolite, medical stone, both having taken full advantage of space, and improve again the clean-up effect of filtering layer, the bedding thickness of this layer is 15cm.
A kind of diafiltration clean scheme that the present invention provides, the place mat height of wherein said coarse sand and fine sand is all 10cm.
A kind of diafiltration clean scheme that the present invention provides, wherein said metalling place mat height is 15cm.
Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 a, Fig. 7 b are the schematic diagram of original position soil layer.A kind of diafiltration clean scheme that the present invention provides, the place mat height of described original position soil layer is 20cm.
For further illustrating the present invention, illustrate with the following Examples:
First, the diafiltration clean scheme provided according to the present invention carries out mating formation of rotary multi-medium-layer and original position soil layer, guarantees to be layered and individually mats formation, and ensure uniform compaction, put according to top-down order after having mated formation when mating formation.Secondly, dielectric layer and original position soil layer once being fixed with bracing frame, and rotate each layer and guarantee that it can rotate around central shaft, after having rotated, use shop bolt carries out secondary to each layer and fixes, and has fixed each layer afterwards and then can not rotate.Finally, by flexible pipe, sedimentation basin is connected with rotary multi-medium-layer, and rainfall simulator is fixed on apparatus main body by bracing frame.After above-mentioned steps terminates, a kind of diafiltration clean analogue means that the present invention proposes then has assembled.
A kind of urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system that the present invention proposes, in rainfall simulator, water inlet conduit selects outer water pump or easy water supply installation according to experimental study area condition.When sample plot point is selected outdoor, can external immersible pump, extraction river enters in storage tank；When experiment condition selectes city, can directly utilize configured can characterize the artificial rainwater of rainwash water quality average level under the conditions of survey region natural precipitation.
Embodiment:
Use laboratory experiment mode, the artificial rainwater configured is placed in storage tank, connecting the water inlet conduit of rainer, the experimental provision size used in embodiment is less, therefore selects fragrant camphor tree seedling, Ligustrum quihoui, permeable brick layer, original position soil layer for examination combined type vegetable layer.After device has combined, the zeolite of the 2:7:1 of testing fill, medical stone and granule layer thickness are 15cm, and gross sand thickness is 10cm, and fine sand layer thickness is 10cm, and fractured-rock layer thickness is 15cm, and original position soil layer thickness is 20cm.
Open storage tank valve, controlling opening of valve coutroi velocity, and then complete the process of automatic imitation rain making.Artificial rainwater oozed apparatus main body, through damming, under ooze, evaporate, plant absorption, adsorption by soil etc. acts on, and reduces flow mode the partial contamination thing eliminating in artificial rainwater.The rainwater oozing each layer is sampled by sedimentation basin, for experiment and post analysis.By to total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), the mensuration of COD (COD) content in storage tank and in each sedimentation basin gained sample, the different medium layer filler removal efficiency to pollutant and the comprehensive purifying ability of apparatus main body assembled scheme can be obtained.
The research of the present embodiment use following methods be measured for the content of TN, TP, COD in sample: TN alkaline chitinase clears up ultraviolet spectrophotometry (GB/T 11894-89)；TP ammonium molybdate spectrophotometric method (GB/T 11893-89)；COD: dichromate titration (GB/T 11914-89).
Embodiment described above is only to be described the preferred embodiment of the present invention; not the scope of the present invention is defined; on the premise of designing spirit without departing from the present invention; various deformation that technical scheme is made by this area ordinary skill technical staff and improvement, all should fall in the protection domain that claims of the present invention determines.
Claims (7)
1. a urban rainfall runoff water quality multimedium classification diafiltration clean simulation system, it is characterized in that: include apparatus main body (1), described apparatus main body (1) is the semi-cylindrical uncovered framework that multiple coaxially connected radius is identical, the spindle central of apparatus main body (1) is positioned at semicircle circle centre position, the top layer of apparatus main body (1) is provided with combined type vegetable layer (2), middle part is provided with multiple rotary multimedium filter layer (3), bottom is provided with original position soil layer (4), each rotary multimedium filter layer (3) is connected with sedimentation basin (5) by flexible pipe respectively；The rotating shaft top of apparatus main body (1) is connected with bracing frame (7), and bracing frame (7) is provided with rainfall simulator (6)；
Described rotary multimedium filter layer (3) includes multiple rotation cell body (3-1), for depositing different fillers；Rotate and have discharge outlet (3-3) on the semi-cylindrical outer wall of cell body (3-1), rotate and be provided with dowel bushing (3-4) on the rear wall of cell body (3-1), be fixed by shop bolt (3-6) between the plurality of rotation cell body (3-1)；The bottom of each rotation cell body (3-1) is a thin layer porous permeable dividing plate (3-5)；Being provided with cross section in each rotation cell body (3-1) is fan-shaped afflux groove (3-2), afflux groove (3-2) upper surface has seepage flow hole (3-7), and afflux groove (3-2) outer wall is provided with and rotates cell body discharge outlet (3-3) level delivery port (3-8)；Described delivery port (3-8) is connected by flexible pipe (3-9) with discharge outlet (3-3)；
Order rotates the number of cell body (3-1) and is N with afflux groove (3-2) number, and the central angle number of degrees that each afflux groove (3-2) is corresponding are 180 °/N；It is initial with the side of rotation cell body (3-1), first afflux groove (3-2) rotated in cell body (3-1) is placed on first position corresponding to the central angle number of degrees, second afflux groove (3-2) rotated in cell body (3-1) is placed on second position corresponding to the central angle number of degrees, by that analogy, the three-dimensional dislocation of afflux groove (3-2) is placed in rotation cell body (3-1), each sectional elevation only has the vertical section of an afflux groove (3-2).
2. the system as claimed in claim 1, it is characterized in that: in described combined type vegetable layer (2), set vegetation growth soil horizon (2-4), vegetation growth soil horizon (2-4) is provided with permeable pavement thin layer (2-3), plants and be implanted with dungarunga (2-1) and low brushwood (2-2) in vegetation growth soil horizon (2-4).
3. the system as claimed in claim 1, it is characterized in that: in described original position soil layer (4) bottom, set thin layer porous permeable dividing plate (4-1) of horizontal positioned and tilted-putted movable dropping plate (4-2), on original position soil layer (4) outer wall, centered by rotating shaft, symmetry has discharge outlet (4-3), and rear wall is provided with dowel bushing (4-4)；Described discharge outlet (4-3) is connected with filtrate collecting tank by flexible pipe (4-5).
4. the system as claimed in claim 1, it is characterized in that: described sedimentation basin (5) is single van-type, is provided with water inlet (5-1), delivery port (5-2), the vertically disposed power of subtracting dividing plate (5-3) and horizontally disposed filter screen thin plate (5-4)；Filter opening (5-5) is had on described filter screen thin plate (5-4)；Described sedimentation basin (5) is connected with the discharge outlet (3-3) rotated on cell body (3-1) outer wall by flexible pipe.
5. the system as claimed in claim 1, it is characterised in that: described rainfall simulator (6) includes rainfall shower nozzle (6-1) and water inlet conduit (6-2)；There is spray apertures (6-3) on described rainfall shower nozzle (6-1) surface；Described water inlet conduit (6-2) outer water pump or simple water supply installation.
6. the system as claimed in claim 1, it is characterised in that: support frame as described above (7) includes support bar (7-1) and attachment means (7-2), is used for connecting rainfall simulator (6) and apparatus main body (1).
7. system as claimed in claim 3, it is characterised in that: described movable dropping plate (4-2) is scalable fixing compoboard.
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| CN106698552B (en) * | 2017-02-23 | 2017-09-19 | 新沂市绿丰农业科技有限公司 | A kind of first processing unit of sewage |
| CN108896727B (en) * | 2018-06-15 | 2021-01-12 | 山东五洲检测有限公司 | Layered sampling type water quality detection device |
| CN108982807B (en) * | 2018-07-02 | 2020-10-27 | 中国水利水电科学研究院 | Dynamic monitoring system for recognizing influence of porous material on soil water-holding capacity |
| CN110122112A (en) * | 2019-06-10 | 2019-08-16 | 贵州师范大学 | A kind of Karst region model plant growth experimental rig and its test method |
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| CN102583888A (en) * | 2012-02-24 | 2012-07-18 | 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所 | Municipal rainfall runoff water quality stage purification method and system |
| CN102721800A (en) * | 2012-06-27 | 2012-10-10 | 北京师范大学 | Artificial rainfall runoff and soil water motion simulation experimental system |
| CN102757155A (en) * | 2012-07-24 | 2012-10-31 | 华东师范大学 | Experimental facility for multi-medium percolation and purification of urban rainfall runoff |
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