IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/cpr/ceprdp/12913.html
   My bibliography  Save this paper

The Rise of Shadow Banking: Evidence from Capital Regulation

Author

Listed:
  • Irani, Rustom M
  • Iyer, Rajkamal
  • Meisenzahl, Ralf R
  • Peydró, José-Luis

Abstract

We investigate the connections between bank capital regulation and the prevalence of lightly regulated nonbanks (shadow banks) in the U.S. corporate loan market. For identi cation, we exploit a supervisory credit register of syndicated loans, loan-time fixed-effects, and shocks to capital requirements arising from surprise features of the U.S. implementation of Basel III. We nd that less-capitalized banks reduce loan retention, particularly among loans with higher capital requirements and at times when capital is scarce, and nonbanks step in. This reallocation has important spillovers: during the 2008 crisis, loans funded by nonbanks with fragile liabilities are less likely to be rolled over and experience greater price volatility.

Suggested Citation

  • Irani, Rustom M & Iyer, Rajkamal & Meisenzahl, Ralf R & Peydró, José-Luis, 2018. "The Rise of Shadow Banking: Evidence from Capital Regulation," CEPR Discussion Papers 12913, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    • Handle: RePEc:cpr:ceprdp:12913
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://cepr.org/publications/DP12913
    Download Restriction: CEPR Discussion Papers are free to download for our researchers, subscribers and members. If you fall into one of these categories but have trouble downloading our papers, please contact us at [email protected]
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to look for a different version below or search for a different version of it.

    Other versions of this item:

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Reint Gropp & Thomas Mosk & Steven Ongena & Carlo Wix, 2019. "Banks Response to Higher Capital Requirements: Evidence from a Quasi-Natural Experiment," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 32(1), pages 266-299.
    2. Berger, Allen N. & Bouwman, Christa H.S., 2013. "How does capital affect bank performance during financial crises?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 109(1), pages 146-176.
    3. Jeremy C. Stein, 2012. "Monetary Policy as Financial Stability Regulation," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 127(1), pages 57-95.
    4. Joseph G. Altonji & Todd E. Elder & Christopher R. Taber, 2005. "Selection on Observed and Unobserved Variables: Assessing the Effectiveness of Catholic Schools," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 113(1), pages 151-184, February.
    5. Abbassi, Puriya & Iyer, Rajkamal & Peydró, José-Luis & Tous, Francesc R., 2016. "Securities trading by banks and credit supply: Micro-evidence from the crisis," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 121(3), pages 569-594.
    6. Andreas Fuster & Matthew Plosser & Philipp Schnabl & James Vickery, 2019. "The Role of Technology in Mortgage Lending," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 32(5), pages 1854-1899.
    7. Manconi, Alberto & Massa, Massimo & Yasuda, Ayako, 2012. "The role of institutional investors in propagating the crisis of 2007–2008," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 104(3), pages 491-518.
    8. Alan Moreira & Alexi Savov, 2017. "The Macroeconomics of Shadow Banking," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 72(6), pages 2381-2432, December.
    9. Aiyar, Shekhar & Calomiris, Charles W. & Hooley, John & Korniyenko, Yevgeniya & Wieladek, Tomasz, 2014. "The international transmission of bank capital requirements: Evidence from the UK," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 113(3), pages 368-382.
    10. repec:bin:bpeajo:v:49:y:2019:i:2018-01:p:347-428 is not listed on IDEAS
    11. David Gaddis Ross, 2010. "The "Dominant Bank Effect:" How High Lender Reputation Affects the Information Content and Terms of Bank Loans," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 23(7), pages 2730-2756, July.
    12. Aiyar, Shekhar & Calomiris, Charles W. & Wieladek, Tomasz, 2016. "How does credit supply respond to monetary policy and bank minimum capital requirements?," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 82(C), pages 142-165.
    13. Hanson, Samuel G. & Shleifer, Andrei & Stein, Jeremy C. & Vishny, Robert W., 2015. "Banks as patient fixed-income investors," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 117(3), pages 449-469.
    14. Max Bruche & Frederic Malherbe & Ralf R Meisenzahl, 2020. "Pipeline Risk in Leveraged Loan Syndication," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 33(12), pages 5660-5705.
    15. Murillo Campello & Erasmo Giambona & John R. Graham & Campbell R. Harvey, 2011. "Liquidity Management and Corporate Investment During a Financial Crisis," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 24(6), pages 1944-1979.
    16. Vitaly M. Bord & João A. C. Santos, 2012. "The rise of the originate-to-distribute model and the role of banks in financial intermediation," Economic Policy Review, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, issue Jul, pages 21-34.
    17. Emily Oster, 2019. "Unobservable Selection and Coefficient Stability: Theory and Evidence," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 37(2), pages 187-204, April.
    18. Andrei Shleifer & Robert Vishny, 2011. "Fire Sales in Finance and Macroeconomics," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 25(1), pages 29-48, Winter.
    19. Repullo, Rafael & Martinez-Miera, David, 2018. "Markets, Banks, and Shadow Banks," CEPR Discussion Papers 13248, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    20. Acharya, Viral V. & Schnabl, Philipp & Suarez, Gustavo, 2013. "Securitization without risk transfer," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 107(3), pages 515-536.
    21. Fenghua Song & Anjan V. Thakor, 2007. "Relationship Banking, Fragility, and the Asset-Liability Matching Problem," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 20(6), pages 2129-2177, November.
    22. Gabriel Chodorow-Reich & Andra Ghent & Valentin Haddad, 2021. "Asset Insulators [Asset pricing and the bid-ask spread]," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 34(3), pages 1509-1539.
    23. De Jonghe, Olivier & Dewachter, Hans & Ongena, Steven, 2020. "Bank capital (requirements) and credit supply: Evidence from pillar 2 decisions," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
    24. Murillo Campello & Erasmo Giambona & John R. Graham & Campbell R. Harvey, 2011. "Access to Liquidity and Corporate Investment in Europe during the Financial Crisis," Review of Finance, European Finance Association, vol. 16(2), pages 323-346.
    25. Guillaume Plantin, 2015. "Shadow Banking and Bank Capital Regulation," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 28(1), pages 146-175.
    26. Anil K. Kashyap & Raghuram Rajan & Jeremy C. Stein, 2002. "Banks as Liquidity Providers: An Explanation for the Coexistence of Lending and Deposit‐taking," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 57(1), pages 33-73, February.
    27. Stulz, Rene, 2010. "Credit default Swaps and the Credit Crisis," Ekonomicheskaya Politika / Economic Policy, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, vol. 6, pages 157-175.
    28. Gabriel Jiménez & Steven Ongena & José-Luis Peydró & Jesús Saurina, 2017. "Macroprudential Policy, Countercyclical Bank Capital Buffers, and Credit Supply: Evidence from the Spanish Dynamic Provisioning Experiments," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 125(6), pages 2126-2177.
    29. Asim Ijaz Khwaja & Atif Mian, 2008. "Tracing the Impact of Bank Liquidity Shocks: Evidence from an Emerging Market," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 98(4), pages 1413-1442, September.
    30. Pennacchi, George, 2006. "Deposit insurance, bank regulation, and financial system risks," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 53(1), pages 1-30, January.
    31. Hamid Mehran, 2011. "Bank Capital and Value in the Cross-Section," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 24(4), pages 1019-1067.
    32. Rustom M. Irani & Ralf R. Meisenzahl, 2017. "Loan Sales and Bank Liquidity Management: Evidence from a U.S. Credit Register," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 30(10), pages 3455-3501.
    33. Piskorski, Tomasz & Seru, Amit & Vig, Vikrant, 2010. "Securitization and distressed loan renegotiation: Evidence from the subprime mortgage crisis," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 97(3), pages 369-397, September.
    34. Calebe de Roure & Loriana Pelizzon & Anjan Thakor, 2022. "P2P Lenders versus Banks: Cream Skimming or Bottom Fishing? [Loan officer incentives, internal rating models and default rates]," The Review of Corporate Finance Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 11(2), pages 213-262.
    35. Coval, Joshua & Stafford, Erik, 2007. "Asset fire sales (and purchases) in equity markets," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 86(2), pages 479-512, November.
    36. Jean-Stéphane Mésonnier & Allen Monks, 2015. "Did the EBA Capital Exercise Cause a Credit Crunch in the Euro Area?," International Journal of Central Banking, International Journal of Central Banking, vol. 11(3), pages 75-117, June.
    37. Campello, Murillo & Graham, John R. & Harvey, Campbell R., 2010. "The real effects of financial constraints: Evidence from a financial crisis," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 97(3), pages 470-487, September.
    38. Bernadette Minton & René Stulz & Rohan Williamson, 2009. "How Much Do Banks Use Credit Derivatives to Hedge Loans?," Journal of Financial Services Research, Springer;Western Finance Association, vol. 35(1), pages 1-31, February.
    39. Nadauld, Taylor D. & Weisbach, Michael S., 2012. "Did securitization affect the cost of corporate debt?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 105(2), pages 332-352.
    40. Benmelech, Efraim & Dlugosz, Jennifer, 2009. "The alchemy of CDO credit ratings," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 56(5), pages 617-634, July.
    41. Xavier Freixas & Jean-Charles Rochet, 2008. "Microeconomics of Banking, 2nd Edition," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 2, volume 1, number 0262062704, April.
    42. You Suk Kim & Steven M. Laufer & Karen Pence & Richard Stanton & Nancy Wallace, 2018. "Liquidity Crises in the Mortgage Market," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 49(1 (Spring), pages 347-428.
    43. Henri Fraisse & Mathias Lé & David Thesmar, 2020. "The Real Effects of Bank Capital Requirements," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 66(1), pages 5-23, January.
    44. Buchak, Greg & Matvos, Gregor & Piskorski, Tomasz & Seru, Amit, 2018. "Fintech, regulatory arbitrage, and the rise of shadow banks," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 130(3), pages 453-483.
    45. Emmanuel Farhi & Jean Tirole, 2021. "Shadow Banking and the Four Pillars of Traditional Financial Intermediation [Securitization without Risk Transfer]," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 88(6), pages 2622-2653.
    46. Cornett, Marcia Millon & McNutt, Jamie John & Strahan, Philip E. & Tehranian, Hassan, 2011. "Liquidity risk management and credit supply in the financial crisis," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 101(2), pages 297-312, August.
    47. Christophe Pérignon & David Thesmar & Guillaume Vuillemey, 2018. "Wholesale Funding Dry‐Ups," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 73(2), pages 575-617, April.
    48. Kim, Sooji & Plosser, Matthew C. & Santos, João A.C., 2018. "Macroprudential policy and the revolving door of risk: Lessons from leveraged lending guidance," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 34(C), pages 17-31.
    49. Matthew C Plosser & João A C Santos, 2018. "Banks’ Incentives and Inconsistent Risk Models," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 31(6), pages 2080-2112.
    50. Freixas, Xavier & Laeven, Luc & Peydró, José-Luis, 2015. "Systemic Risk, Crises, and Macroprudential Regulation," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 1, volume 1, number 0262028697, April.
    51. Shekhar Aiyar & Charles W. Calomiris & Tomasz Wieladek, 2014. "Does Macro‐Prudential Regulation Leak? Evidence from a UK Policy Experiment," Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 46(s1), pages 181-214, February.
    52. Evan Gatev & Philip E. Strahan, 2006. "Banks' Advantage in Hedging Liquidity Risk: Theory and Evidence from the Commercial Paper Market," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 61(2), pages 867-892, April.
    53. Goldstein, Itay & Jiang, Hao & Ng, David T., 2017. "Investor flows and fragility in corporate bond funds," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 126(3), pages 592-613.
    54. Elliehausen, Gregory & Hannon, Simona M., 2018. "The Credit Card Act and consumer finance company lending," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 34(C), pages 109-119.
    55. Chernenko, Sergey & Sunderam, Adi, 2020. "Do fire sales create externalities?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 135(3), pages 602-628.
    56. Bharath, Sreedhar & Dahiya, Sandeep & Saunders, Anthony & Srinivasan, Anand, 2007. "So what do I get? The bank's view of lending relationships," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(2), pages 368-419, August.
    57. Max Bruche & Frederic Malherbe & Ralf R Meisenzahl, 0. "Pipeline Risk in Leveraged Loan Syndication," Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 33(12), pages 5660-5705.
    58. Amir Sufi, 2007. "Information Asymmetry and Financing Arrangements: Evidence from Syndicated Loans," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 62(2), pages 629-668, April.
    59. Mark J. Flannery, 2014. "Maintaining Adequate Bank Capital," Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 46(s1), pages 157-180, February.
    60. Anil Shivdasani & Yihui Wang, 2011. "Did Structured Credit Fuel the LBO Boom?," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 66(4), pages 1291-1328, August.
    61. Gabriel Chodorow-Reich, 2014. "The Employment Effects of Credit Market Disruptions: Firm-level Evidence from the 2008-9 Financial Crisis," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 129(1), pages 1-59.
    62. Abbassi, Puriya & Iyer, Rajkamal & Peydró, José-Luis & Tous, Francesc R., 2016. "Securities trading by banks and credit supply: Micro-evidence from the crisis," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 121(3), pages 569-594.
    63. Matthew Plosser & João A. C. Santos, 2014. "Banks' incentives and the quality of internal risk models," Staff Reports 704, Federal Reserve Bank of New York.
    64. Benmelech, Efraim & Dlugosz, Jennifer & Ivashina, Victoria, 2012. "Securitization without adverse selection: The case of CLOs," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 106(1), pages 91-113.
    65. Steven Drucker & Manju Puri, 2009. "On Loan Sales, Loan Contracting, and Lending Relationships," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 22(7), pages 2635-2672, July.
    66. Bridges, Jonathan & Gregory, David & Nielsen, Mette & Pezzini, Silvia & Radia, Amar & Spaltro, Marco, 2014. "The impact of capital requirements on bank lending," Bank of England working papers 486, Bank of England.
    67. Samuel G. Hanson & Anil K. Kashyap & Jeremy C. Stein, 2011. "A Macroprudential Approach to Financial Regulation," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 25(1), pages 3-28, Winter.
    68. Victoria Ivashina & David Scharfstein, 2010. "Loan Syndication and Credit Cycles," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 100(2), pages 57-61, May.
    69. Greg Nini & David C. Smith & Amir Sufi, 2012. "Creditor Control Rights, Corporate Governance, and Firm Value," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 25(6), pages 1713-1761.
    70. John Geanakoplos, 2009. "The Leverage Cycle," Cowles Foundation Discussion Papers 1715, Cowles Foundation for Research in Economics, Yale University.
    71. Anjan V. Thakor, 2014. "Bank Capital and Financial Stability: An Economic Trade-Off or a Faustian Bargain?," Annual Review of Financial Economics, Annual Reviews, vol. 6(1), pages 185-223, December.
    72. Ivashina, Victoria & Sun, Zheng, 2011. "Institutional demand pressure and the cost of corporate loans," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 99(3), pages 500-522, March.
    73. Anat R. Admati & Peter M. DeMarzo & Martin F. Hellwig & Paul Pfleiderer, 2013. "Fallacies, Irrelevant Facts, and Myths in the Discussion of Capital Regulation: Why Bank Equity is Not Socially Expensive," Discussion Paper Series of the Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods 2013_23, Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods.
    74. Aiyar, Shekhar & Calomiris, Charles & Hooley, John & Korniyenko , Yevgeniya & Wieladek, Tomasz, 2014. "The international transmission of bank capital requirements: evidence from the United Kingdom," Bank of England working papers 497, Bank of England.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Irani, Rustom & Iyer, Rajkamal & Meisenzahl, Ralf & Peydró, José-Luis, 2021. "The rise of shadow banking: Evidence from capital regulation," EconStor Open Access Articles and Book Chapters, ZBW - Leibniz Information Centre for Economics, pages 2181-2235.
    2. Retselisitsoe I. Thamae & Nicholas M. Odhiambo, 2022. "The impact of bank regulation on bank lending: a review of international literature," Journal of Banking Regulation, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 23(4), pages 405-418, December.
    3. Rustom M. Irani & Ralf R. Meisenzahl, 2015. "Loan Sales and Bank Liquidity Risk Management: Evidence from a U.S. Credit Register," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2015-1, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.).
    4. repec:fip:fedgfe:2014-115 is not listed on IDEAS
    5. De Jonghe, Olivier & Dewachter, Hans & Ongena, Steven, 2020. "Bank capital (requirements) and credit supply: Evidence from pillar 2 decisions," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
    6. Chavaz, Matthieu & Elliott, David, 2020. "Separating retail and investment banking: evidence from the UK," Bank of England working papers 892, Bank of England, revised 18 Feb 2021.
    7. Bouwman, Christa H. S., 2013. "Liquidity: How Banks Create It and How It Should Be Regulated," Working Papers 13-32, University of Pennsylvania, Wharton School, Weiss Center.
    8. Björn Imbierowicz & Jonas Kragh & Jesper Rangvid, 2018. "Time‐Varying Capital Requirements and Disclosure Rules: Effects on Capitalization and Lending Decisions," Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 50(4), pages 573-602, June.
    9. Sharjil M. Haque & Simon Mayer & Teng Wang, 2024. "How Private Equity Fuels Non-Bank Lending," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2024-015, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.).
    10. Jose Maria Serena & Marina‐Eliza Spaliara & Serafeim Tsoukas, 2022. "International bank credit, nonbank lenders, and access to external financing," Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, vol. 60(3), pages 1214-1232, July.
    11. Matthieu Darracq Paries, 2018. "Financial frictions and monetary policy conduct," Erudite Ph.D Dissertations, Erudite, number ph18-01 edited by Ferhat Mihoubi.
    12. Ippolito, Filippo & Peydró, José-Luis & Polo, Andrea & Sette, Enrico, 2016. "Double bank runs and liquidity risk management," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 122(1), pages 135-154.
    13. Auer, Raphael & Matyunina, Alexandra & Ongena, Steven, 2022. "The countercyclical capital buffer and the composition of bank lending," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 52(C).
    14. Altavilla, Carlo & Laeven, Luc & Peydró, José-Luis, 2020. "Monetary and Macroprudential Policy Complementarities: evidence from European credit registers," CEPR Discussion Papers 15539, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    15. Cappelletti, Giuseppe & Reghezza, Alessio & Rodríguez d'Acri, Costanza & Spaggiari, Martina, 2022. "Compositional effects of bank capital buffers and interactions with monetary policy," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 140(C).
    16. Berger, Allen N. & Molyneux, Phil & Wilson, John O.S., 2020. "Banks and the real economy: An assessment of the research," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 62(C).
    17. Dong Beom Choi & Hyun-Soo Choi, 2021. "The Effect of Monetary Policy on Bank Wholesale Funding," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 67(1), pages 388-416, January.
    18. Puriya Abbassi & Rajkamal Iyer & José-Luis Peydró & Paul E. Soto, 2020. "Stressed Banks? Evidence from the Largest-Ever Supervisory Review," Working Papers 1178, Barcelona School of Economics.
    19. Elliott, David & Meisenzahl, Ralf R. & Peydró, José-Luis, 2024. "Nonbank lenders as global shock absorbers: Evidence from US monetary policy spillovers," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 149(C).
    20. Peydró, José-Luis & Polo, Andrea & Sette, Enrico, 2021. "Monetary policy at work: Security and credit application registers evidence," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 140(3), pages 789-814.
    21. Degryse, Hans & Karapetyan, Artashes & Karmakar, Sudipto, 2021. "To ask or not to ask? Bank capital requirements and loan collateralization," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 142(1), pages 239-260.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    Shadow banks; Risk-based capital regulation; Basel iii; Interactions between banks and nonbanks; Trading by banks; Distressed debt;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • G01 - Financial Economics - - General - - - Financial Crises
    • G21 - Financial Economics - - Financial Institutions and Services - - - Banks; Other Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages
    • G23 - Financial Economics - - Financial Institutions and Services - - - Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments; Institutional Investors
    • G28 - Financial Economics - - Financial Institutions and Services - - - Government Policy and Regulation

    NEP fields

    This paper has been announced in the following NEP Reports:

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:cpr:ceprdp:12913. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: the person in charge (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.cepr.org .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.