• User-defined types
• Table inheritance
• Sophisticated locking mechanism
• Foreign key referential integrity
• Views, rules, subquery
• Nested transactions (savepoints)
• Multi-version concurrency control (MVCC)
• Asynchronous replication
• Tablespaces
• Point-in-time recovery

• SQL language is case insensitive. By convention, SQL keywords are used in uppercase to make the code easier to read.
• You may notice semicolons (;) at the end of the SQL queries. The semicolon is not a part of the SQL statement. It is used to signal PostgreSQL the end of an SQL statement. The semicolon is also used to separate two SQL statements.

SELECT is being used to query data from tables.

• DISTINCT
  • select distinct rows
• ORDER BY
  • sort rows
• WHERE
  • filter rows
• LIMIT or FETCH
  • select a subset of rows
• GROUP BY
  • group rows into groups
• HAVING
  • filter groups
• INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, FULL OUTER JOIN, CROSS JOIN
  • join with other tables
• UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT
  • perform set operations

SELECT
  select_list
FROM
  table_name;

• select_list
  • can be a column or comma to separated list of columns
  • can contain expressions or literal values
  • * = select data from all the columns
    • it is not a good practice to use the asterisk because it will effect the size of data retrieved from database and may cause slowness.
    • it is a good practice to specify the column names explicitly
    • use the asterisk (*) shorthand only for the ad-hoc queries to examine the data

SELECT first_name FROM customer;

SELECT first_name, last_name, email FROM customer;

SELECT * FROM customer;

column alias

SELECT first_name as name FROM customer;

SELECT 5 * 3 AS result;

concatenation operator

SELECT first_name || ' ' || last_name AS email FROM customer;

ORDER BY is being used to sort the result set returned from the SELECT statement

SELECT
  column_1,
  column_2
FROM
  table_name
ORDER BY
  column_1 [ASC | DESC],
  column_2 [ASC | DESC];

ASC option is the default

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer ORDER BY first_name ASC;

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer ORDER BY first_name ASC, last_name DESC;

sort rows by expressions

SELECT first_name, LENGTH(first_name) len FROM customer
ORDER BY LENGTH(first_name) DESC;

/* or */

SELECT first_name, LENGTH(first_name) len FROM customer
ORDER BY len DESC;

DISTINCT is being used to remove duplicate rows from a result set returned by a query.

• keeps one row for each group of duplicates
• applied to entire tuple, not to an attribute of the result
  • which means for a table where only column a and b exist:
  • SELECT DISTINCT * FROM table == SELECT DISTINCT a, b FROM table
  • and you cannot use; SELECT a, DISTINCT b FROM table

SELECT
  DISTINCT column_1
FROM
  table_name;

multiple columns are specified, clause will evaluate the duplicate based on the combination of values of these columns. in another word, uniqueness of the rows determined by combination of specified columns.

SELECT
  DISTINCT column_1, column_2
FROM
  table_name;

SELECT DISTINCT bcolor FROM t1 ORDER BY bcolor;

SELECT DISTINCT bcolor, fcolor FROM t1 ORDER BY bcolor, fcolor;

DISTINCT ON is more similar to GROUP BY than it is to DISTINCT. Query with DISTINCT ON first will sorts the result set by the columns in ORDER BY clause, and then for each group of duplicates, it keeps the first row in the returned result set. In another word, it tells PostgreSQL to return a single row for each distinct group defined by the ON clause, which row in that group is returned is specified with the ORDER BY clause.

• is a PostgreSQL addition to the language
• it is good practice to always use the ORDER BY clause with the DISTINCT ON(expression)
• DISTINCT ON expression must match the leftmost expression in the ORDER BY clause

SELECT
  DISTINCT ON (column_1) column_alias,
  column_2
FROM
  table_name
ORDER BY
  column_1,
  column_2;

SELECT DISTINCT ON (bcolor) bcolor, fcolor
FROM t1 ORDER BY bcolor, fcolor;

WHERE is being used to

• filter rows returned from the SELECT statement.

• filter rows will be updated in the UPDATE statement

• filter rows will be deleted in the DELETE statement

• only rows that cause the condition evaluates to true will be affected

Following comparison operators can be used;

SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

• condition must evaluate to true, false, or unknown
• condition can be a boolean expression or a combination of boolean expressions using AND and OR operators

SELECT last_name, first_name FROM customer WHERE first_name = 'Jamie';

AND

SELECT last_name, first_name FROM customer WHERE first_name = 'Jamie' AND last_name = 'Rice';

OR

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer WHERE last_name = 'Rodriguez' OR first_name = 'Adam';

IN, match values by list (See IN chapter.)

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer WHERE first_name IN ('Ann','Anne','Annie');

LIKE, matches string by a specified pattern (See LIKE chapter.)

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer WHERE first_name LIKE 'Ann%'

BETWEEN, matches values which are in a specified range (See BETWEEN chapter.)

SELECT first_name, LENGTH(first_name) name_length FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE 'A%' AND LENGTH(first_name) BETWEEN 3 AND 5
ORDER BY name_length;

Using with other comparison operators;

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE 'Bra%' AND  last_name <> 'Motley';

LIMIT is being used to get a subset of rows generated by a query.

• Although it is widely used by many RDBMS', LIMIT clause is not a SQL-standard.

SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
LIMIT n;

• statement returns n rows generated by the query
• if n is zero, the query returns an empty set
• if n is NULL, it has no effect to query

to skip a number of rows before returning the n rows, OFFSET clause could be used as follow;

SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
LIMIT n OFFSET m;

• if m is zero, it has no effect to query
• a large OFFSET might not be efficient

SELECT film_id, title, release_year
FROM film ORDER BY film_id LIMIT 5;

SELECT film_id, title, release_year
FROM film ORDER BY film_id LIMIT 4 OFFSET 3;

FETCH is being used to retrieve a portion of rows returned by a query.

• Has same function with LIMIT, however FETCH is a SQL-standard.

SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
OFFSET start {ROW | ROWS}
FETCH {FIRST | NEXT} [row_count] {ROW | ROWS} ONLY

• ROW and FIRST are synonymous with ROWS and NEXT respectively.
• start is an integer that must be zero or positive
  • it is zero if the OFFSET clause is not specified
  • if start is greater than the number of rows in the underlying result set, no rows are returned
• row_count is one or higher
  • by default, the value of row_count is one, if not specified

SELECT film_id, title FROM film ORDER BY title
FETCH FIRST ROW ONLY;

/* same as following */

SELECT film_id, title FROM film ORDER BY title
FETCH FIRST 1 ROW ONLY;

SELECT film_id, title FROM film ORDER BY title
FETCH FIRST 5 ROW ONLY;

SELECT film_id, title FROM film ORDER BY title
OFFSET 5 ROWS FETCH FIRST 5 ROW ONLY;

IN is a WHERE clause and being used to check against a list of values.

SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
WHERE value IN (value1,value2,...);

• list of values can be

  • a list of numbers or strings

  • result set of a SELECT statement

    SELECT select_list FROM table_name WHERE value IN (SELECT value FROM tbl_name);

statement inside the parentheses is called a subquery which is a query nested inside another query

SELECT customer_id, rental_id, return_date FROM rental
WHERE customer_id IN (1, 2)
ORDER BY return_date DESC;

NOT IN

SELECT customer_id, rental_id, return_date
FROM rental
WHERE customer_id NOT IN (1, 2);

with subquery

SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM customer
WHERE customer_id IN (
  SELECT customer_id FROM rental
  WHERE CAST (return_date AS DATE) = '2005-05-27'
);

BETWEEN is a WHERE clause and being used to match a value against a range of values.

SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
WHERE value BETWEEN low AND high;

SELECT customer_id, payment_id, amount FROM payment
WHERE amount BETWEEN 8 AND 9;

NOT BETWEEN

SELECT customer_id, payment_id, amount FROM payment
WHERE amount NOT BETWEEN 8 AND 9;

date ranges

SELECT customer_id, payment_id, amount, payment_date FROM payment
WHERE payment_date BETWEEN '2007-02-07' AND '2007-02-15';

LIKE and ILIKE are WHERE clauses and they are being used to match a value against given pattern.

ILIKE is same as LIKE operator but it matches values case-insensitively.

PostgreSQL also provides alias operators for LIKE and ILIKE.

SELECT select_list
FROM table_name
WHERE value LIKE 'pattern';

wildcard character

• %, for matching any sequence of characters
• _, for matching any single character

if the pattern does not contain any wildcard character, the LIKE operator acts like the equal (=) operator.

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE '%er%'

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE '_her%';

NOT LIKE

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer
WHERE first_name NOT LIKE 'Jen%';

ILIKE

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer
WHERE first_name ILIKE 'BAR%';

using aliases

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer
WHERE first_name ~~ '_her%';

• \? show help for psql commands
• \l list databases
• \h list available SQL commands
• \h [NAME] help on syntax of SQL command

pg_restore restores a PostgreSQL database from an archive created by pg_dump.

To restore from a .tar.gz file, copy your file under the /tmp folder, and then;

# extract the tar.gz
tar xvzf hello.tar.gz

# remember to create database
CREATE DATABASE hello;

# restore the database
pg_restore -cv -U postgres -d hello /tmp/hello

Just use boot script to create and login directly into container;

bash ./scripts/boot.sh

This will bring you directly to the psql. You can exit from here by typing exit or using CTRL + D. Remember exiting from here will not going to stop the actual docker container. To stop it use docker stop hello_sql command.

Note that:

• each time you run the boot script, it'll recreate the container from scratch, hence your data will lost. To keep your data, use commands I listed below to connect to already running database container.
• sometimes boot process will crash, dont know why, just rerun the script.

To connect PostgreSQL via an app, such as Postico, use following settings; host=localhost, port=7654, user=postgres with no password.

To exec some command within the container do docker exec -it hello_sql <command>, see example commands below.

docker start hello_sql

docker exec -it hello_sql bash

docker exec -it hello_sql psql -Upostgres

docker cp /Users/ramesaliyev/Downloads/hello.tar.gz hello_sql:/tmp

All databases you would see under the samples folder will be ready to use for you. All of them first going to be copied under /tmp/samples folder and restored automatically into the Postgres. Just use \l psql command or your favorite app to list databases to see.