C++11 (ISO/IEC 14882:2011) introduced std::atomic, which provides clearly defined semantics for concurrent memory access. The 2020 version of the standard (C++20) extended it further with wait() and notify_one(), which allows the implementation of blocking operations, such as lock acquisition.

In environments where a system call like the Linux futex is available, std::atomic::wait() and std::atomic::notify_one() can be implemented by it.

Our alternatives to the standard mutexes are non-recursive and support the transfer of lock ownership (unlock() in a different thread than lock()):

• atomic_mutex: Compatible with std::mutex.
• atomic_shared_mutex: Extends std::shared_mutex with lock_update(), which is compatible with lock_shared(). This mode can be used for exclusively locking part of a resource while other parts can be safely accessed by shared lock holders.

For maximal flexibility, a template parameter can be specified. We provide an interface mutex_storage and a reference implementation based on C++11 or C++20 std::atomic (default: 4 bytes).

Some examples of extending or using the primitives are provided:

• atomic_condition_variable: A condition variable in 4 bytes that goes with (atomic_mutex or atomic_shared_mutex). Unlike the potentially larger std::condition_variable_any, this supports wait_shared() and is_waiting() (for lock elision).
• atomic_recursive_shared_mutex: A variant of atomic_shared_mutex that supports re-entrant lock() and lock_update().
• transactional_lock_guard, transactional_shared_lock_guard: Similar to std::lock_guard and std::shared_lock_guard, but with optional support for lock elision using transactional memory.

You can try it out as follows:

mkdir build
cd build
cmake -DWITH_SPINLOOP=ON ..
cmake --build .
test/test_atomic_sync
test/test_atomic_condition
test/test_mutex 4 10000
test/test_native_mutex 4 10000
# Microsoft Windows:
test/Debug/test_atomic_sync
test/Debug/test_atomic_condition
test/Debug/test_mutex 4 10000
test/Debug/test_native_mutex 4 10000

The output of the test_atomic_sync program should be like this:

atomic_spin_mutex, atomic_spin_shared_mutex, atomic_spin_recursive_shared_mutex.

Note: -DSPINLOOP=0 (or anything else than a positive integer) disables any use of spin loops in the implementation.

The build option -DWITH_SPINLOOP=ON makes test_atomic_sync request that spinloops be used. If conflicts are not expected to be resolved quickly, it is advisable to not use spinloops and instead let threads immediately proceed to wait() inside a system call. When compiled -DWITH_SPINLOOP=OFF, the output of the test_atomic_sync should be like this:

atomic_mutex, atomic_shared_mutex, atomic_recursive_shared_mutex.

There is a static member function declaration default_spin_rounds() in the mutex_storage and shared_mutex_storage classes, but it has not been defined. The idea is that it would provide a default argument for spin_lock() and friends.

This is based on my implementation of InnoDB rw-locks in MariaDB Server 10.6. The main motivation of publishing this separately is:

• To help compiler writers implement wait() and notify_one().
• To eventually include kind of synchronization primitives in a future version of the C++ standard library.
• To provide space efficient synchronization primitives, for example to implement a hash table with one mutex per cache line (such as the lock_sys_t::hash_table in MariaDB Server 10.6).

The implementation with C++20 std::atomic has been tested with:

• Microsoft Visual Studio 2019
• GCC 11.2.0, GCC 12.2.0 on GNU/Linux
• clang++-12, clang++-13 using libstdc++-11-dev on Debian GNU/Linux

The implementation with C++11 std::atomic and futex is expected to work with GCC 4.8.5 to GCC 10 on Linux, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, DragonFly BSD. It has been tested with:

• GCC 10.2.1 on GNU/Linux
• GCC 8.3 on DragonFly BSD
• clang 11.0.1 on FreeBSD 13.0
• clang++-12, clang++-13 on GNU/Linux when libstdc++-11-dev is not available
• Intel C++ Compiler based on clang++-12

The following operating systems seem to define something similar to a futex system call, but we have not implemented it yet:

• Apple macOS: __ulock_wait(), __ulock_wake() (undocumented)

The following operating systems do not appear to define a futex system call:

• NetBSD
• Solaris (Illumos)
• HP-UX
• AIX

The C++20 std::atomic::wait() and std::atomic::notify_one() would seem to deliver a portable futex interface. Unfortunately, it does not appear to be available yet on any system that lacks the system calls. For example, Apple XCode based on clang++-12 explicitly declares std::atomic::wait() and std::atomic::notify_one() unavailable via

#define _LIBCPP_AVAILABILITY_SYNC __attribute__((unavailable))

The subdirectory atomic_sync is the core of this, containing the implementation of atomic_mutex and atomic_shared_mutex.

The subdirectory examples contains some additional code that demonstrates how atomic_mutex or atomic_shared_mutex can be used.

The subdirectory test contains test programs.

The clang and GCC option -fsanitize=thread currently requires some extra instrumentation in order to recognize that atomic_mutex and atomic_shared_mutex actually implement locks. This instrumentation could also offer the benefit of catching lock-order-inversion (potential deadlock).

The atomic_shared_mutex is instrumented as two locks, corresponding to its internal implementation. An exclusive lock() internally acquires a lock on both the data members outer and inner. A lock_shared() operates on the inner lock. If the mutex_storage is write-locked, then lock_shared() will momentarily acquire and release outer in order to wait for unlock(). The third lock mode lock_update() locks outer and acquires a shared lock on inner.

For atomic_shared_mutex, the ThreadSanitizer instrumentation includes a flag __tsan_mutex_try_read_lock that is not available in GCC 11.

The instrumentation depends on some features that are not available in C++11. It has been tested with clang++-14, clang++-15, and GCC 12. The program test_mutex, which does not use atomic_shared_mutex, has been tested with GCC 11 -fsanitize=thread.

The program test_native_mutex demonstrates how a user-defined mutex_storage (based on POSIX pthread_mutex_t or Microsoft Windows SRWLOCK) can be used with atomic_mutex. That program will report bogus ThreadSanitizer data race warnings when built with GCC 12 for GNU/Linux, presumably because the built-in instrumentation for pthread_mutex_t interferes with the additional instrumentation in atomic_mutex.

The transactional_lock_guard is like std::lock_guard but designed for supporting transactional memory around atomic_mutex or atomic_shared_mutex. If support is not detected at compilation or run time, it should be equivalent to std::lock_guard.

The transactional_shared_lock_guard and transactional_update_lock_guard are for the two non-exclusive modes of atomic_shared_mutex.

Lock elision may be enabled by specifying cmake -DWITH_ELISION=ON. If transactional memory is supported, test_atomic_sync and test_atomic_condition will output the following:

transactional atomic_mutex, atomic_shared_mutex, atomic_recursive_shared_mutex.
condition variables with transactional atomic_mutex, atomic_shared_mutex.

If support for transaction memory was not detected, the output will say non-transactional instead of transactional.

Intel Transactional Synchronization Extensions New Instructions (TSX-NI) for IA-32 and AMD64 enable access to Restricted Transactional Memory (RTM) operations. The instructions are is available on some higher-end Intel processors that implement the IA-32 or AMD64 ISA. RTM is currently not available on processors manufactured by AMD.

You may want to check some performance statistics.

perf record -g -e tx-abort test/test_atomic_sync
perf record -g -e tx-abort test/test_atomic_condition

In test_atomic_sync, lock elision is detrimental for performance, because lock conflicts make transaction aborts and re-execution extremely common.

The elision is very simple, not even implementing any retry mechanism. If the lock cannot be elided on the first attempt, we will fall back to acquiring the lock.

This has been successfully tested on Debian GNU/Linux Buster with GCC 7.5.0.

Inside QEMU virtual machines that I tested, the availability was not detected and an attempt to override the runtime detection (which is only implemented for Linux) caused the tbegin. instruction to throw SIGILL (illegal instruction).

When compiling the code with earlier GCC than version 5, you will have to specify -DCMAKE_CXX_FLAGS=-mhtm or equivalent.

No interface for run-time detection appears to have been published yet. Only an inline assembler interface appears to be available, starting with GCC 10 and clang 10. It is not known yet which implementations of ARMv8 or ARMv9 would support this.

I have tested the atomic_mutex::wait_and_lock() implementation on a dual Intel Xeon E5-2630 v4 (2×10 threads each, Haswell microarchitecture) as follows:

mkdir build
cd build
cmake -DCMAKE_BUILD_TYPE=RelWithDebInfo -DCMAKE_CXX_COMPILER=clang++-13 ..
cmake --build .
time test/test_atomic_sync
time numactl --cpunodebind 1 --localalloc test/test_atomic_sync

The numactl command would bind the process to one NUMA node (CPU package) in order to avoid shipping cache lines between NUMA nodes. The smallest difference between plain and numactl that I achieved at one point was with -DSPINLOOP=50 (which is the default). For more stable times, I temporarily changed the value of N_ROUNDS to 500 in the source code. The durations below are the fastest of several attempts with clang++-13 and N_ROUNDS = 100.

The execution times without numactl vary a lot; a much longer run (with a larger value of N_ROUNDS) is advisable for performance tests.

On the Intel Skylake microarchitecture, the PAUSE instruction latency was made about 10× it was on Haswell. Later microarchitectures reduced the latency again. That latency may affect the optimal spinloop count, but it is only one of many factors.

The program test_mutex compares the performance of atomic_mutex and atomic_spin_mutex with std::mutex. It expects two parameters: the number of threads, and the number of iterations within each thread. The relative performance of the implementations may vary with the number of concurrent threads. On a system with 4 execution cores, the output of a CMAKE_BUILD_TYPE=RelWithDebInfo build that was invoked as test_mutex 4 100000 might look something like this:

atomic_mutex: 0.036838s, atomic_spin_mutex: 0.059827s, mutex: 0.073922s

On a Raspberry Pi 2 (4 execution cores that implement the ARMv7 ISA), the output of test_mutex 8 100000 nicely illustrates the usefulness of spinloops:

atomic_mutex: 0.411457s, atomic_spin_mutex: 0.218578s, mutex: 0.435057s