Ghidra Snippets is a collection of Python examples showing how to work with Ghidra APIs. There are three primary APIs covered here, the Flat Program API, the Flat Decompiler API, and everything else ("Complex API"). The Flat APIs are 'simple' versions of the full fledged Complex Ghidra API. They are a great starting point for anyone looking to develop Ghidra modules and/or scripts.
At some point however, you need to reach outside of the Flat APIs to do really interesting things. Everything here is just a mashup to get the job done. There's more than one way to accomplish each task so make sure you ask yourself if these snippets are really what you need before copy/pasta.
- Loooking for the latest release of Ghidra? Download it here.
- Loooking for the latest API Docs? In Ghidra's UI, select Help -> Ghidra API Help to unpack the docs and view them.
- Just want a quick online API reference? Ghidra.re hosts an online version of the API docs (may not be up to date).
Feel free to submit pull requests to master on this repo with any modifications you see fit. Most of these snippets are meant to be verbose, but if you know of a better way to do something, please share it via pull request or submitting an issue. Thanks!
Working with the Flat APIs
Working with Projects
Working with Programs
Working with Functions
Working with Basic Blocks
Working with Instructions
Working with Variables
Working with the Decompiler
Working with Comments
Working with PCode
Working with Graphs
Miscellaneous
As stated in the introduction, the simplest method of using Ghidra's API is via the Flat APIs. As of Ghidra 10.2 this includes FlatProgramAPI, FlatDecompilerAPI, and the most recent FlatDebuggerAPI. The Flat APIs are designed to offer a stable API interface to some of Ghidra's high level functionality. The simplicity and convenience offered by the Flat APIs can be quickly eclipsed by their limited functionality. However, if what you need to do is offered via the Flat APIs, it's highly recommended you use them.
The FlatProgramAPI is a simple interface to Ghidra's program related functionality. This includes functions, data, instructions, etc.
from ghidra.program.flatapi import FlatProgramAPI
state = getState()
program = state.getCurrentProgram()
fpapi = FlatProgramAPI(program)
for x in dir(fpapi): print(x)
print(fpapi.currentProgram)
print(fpapi.firstFunction)Output example
MAX_REFERENCES_TO
__class__
<...snip...>
addressFactory
analyze
analyzeAll
<...snip...>
currentProgram
disassemble
<...snip...>
findStrings
firstData
firstFunction
firstInstruction
getAddressFactory
getBookmarks
<...snip...>
bug - .ProgramDB
_init
The FlatDecompilerAPI is a simple interface to Ghidra's decompiler and requires an instance of the FlatProgramAPI for initialization in order to do anything useful. In other words, we need a target program to use the decompiler.
from ghidra.app.decompiler.flatapi import FlatDecompilerAPI
from ghidra.program.flatapi import FlatProgramAPI
fpapi = FlatProgramAPI(getState().getCurrentProgram())
fdapi = FlatDecompilerAPI(fpapi)
for x in dir(fdapi): print(x)
main_decomp = fdapi.decompile(fpapi.getFunction('main'))
print(main_decomp)Output example
<...snip...>
decompile
decompiler
dispose
equals
getClass
getDecompiler
hashCode
initialize
notify
notifyAll
toString
wait
int main(void)
{
int retVal;
long in_FS_OFFSET;
int choice;
char *local_38 [5];
long stackCookie;
stackCookie = *(long *)(in_FS_OFFSET + 0x28);
choice = 0;
local_38[0] = "My secret";
local_38[1] = "Red";
local_38[2] = "Green";
local_38[3] = "Blue";
printf("Choice: ");
__isoc99_fscanf(stdin,"%d",&choice);
if ((choice == 0) || (3 < choice)) {
printf("Invalid choice: %d!\n",(ulong)(uint)choice);
retVal = -1;
}
else {
printf("data[%d]: %s\n",(ulong)(uint)choice,local_38[(int)(char)choice]);
retVal = 0;
}
if (stackCookie != *(long *)(in_FS_OFFSET + 0x28)) {
/* WARNING: Subroutine does not return */
__stack_chk_fail();
}
return retVal;
}
The FlatDebuggerAPI is a simple interface to Ghidra's debugger and trace functionality. This is a new feature as of Ghidra 10.2 and yet to be documented in the Ghidra 10.2 API docs. For some extra context about this API, see DemoDebuggerScript.java. As I learn more about this API I'll update this section.
from ghidra.debug.flatapi import FlatDebuggerAPI
fdapi = FlatDebuggerAPI
for x in dir(fdapi): print(x)Output example
<...snip...>
kill
launch
launchOffers
<...snip...>
writeMemory
writeRegister
A Ghidra Project (class GhidraProject) contains a logical set of program binaries related to a reverse engineering effort. Projects can be shared (collaborative) or non-shared (private). The snippets in this section deal with bulk import and analysis, locating project files on disk, and more.
If you're looking to automate analysis using headless scripts you'll likley have to deal with project management. This includes adding binaries to existing projects, cleaning up old projects, or perhaps syncing analysis to shared projects.
state = getState()
project = state.getProject()
program = state.getCurrentProgram()
locator = project.getProjectData().getProjectLocator()
print("type(state): {}".format(type(state)))
print("type(project): {}".format(type(project)))
print("type(program): {}".format(type(program)))
print("type(locator): {}".format(type(locator)))
print("Project Name: {}".format(locator.getName()))
print("Files in this project: {}".format(project.getProjectData().getFileCount()))
print("Is a remote project: {}".format(locator.isTransient()))
print("Project location: {}".format(locator.getLocation()))
print("Project directory: {}".format(locator.getProjectDir()))
print("Lock file: {}".format(locator.getProjectLockFile()))
print("Marker file: {}".format(locator.getMarkerFile()))
print("Project URL: {}".format(locator.getURL()))Output example
type(state): <type 'ghidra.app.script.GhidraState'>
type(project): <type 'ghidra.framework.project.DefaultProject'>
type(program): <type 'ghidra.program.database.ProgramDB'>
type(locator): <type 'ghidra.framework.model.ProjectLocator'>
Project Name: pcodeproject
Files in this project: 4
Is a remote project: 0
Project location: C:\Users\username\Desktop\pcode
Project directory: C:\Users\username\Desktop\pcode\pcodeproject.rep
Lock file: C:\Users\username\Desktop\pcode\pcodeproject.lock
Marker file: C:\Users\username\Desktop\pcode\pcodeproject.gpr
Project URL: ghidra:/C:/Users/username/Desktop/pcode/pcodeproject
A Ghidra project is a logical collection binaries that relate to a specific RE effort. This might be a single executable with multiple shared objects, or multiple executables with numerous third-party libraries, kernel modules, and drivers.
state = getState()
project = state.getProject()
locator = project.getProjectData().getProjectLocator()
projectMgr = project.getProjectManager()
activeProject = projectMgr.getActiveProject()
projectData = activeProject.getProjectData()
rootFolder = projectData.getRootFolder()
print("type(state): {}".format(type(state)))
print("type(project): {}".format(type(project)))
print("type(projectMgr): {}".format(type(projectMgr)))
print("type(activeProject): {}".format(type(activeProject)))
print("type(projectData): {}".format(type(projectData)))
print("type(rootFolder): {}".format(type(rootFolder)))
projectName = locator.getName()
fileCount = projectData.getFileCount()
files = rootFolder.getFiles()
print("The project '{}' has {} files in it:".format(projectName, fileCount))
for file in files:
print("\t{}".format(file))Output example
type(state): <type 'ghidra.app.script.GhidraState'>
type(project): <type 'ghidra.framework.project.DefaultProject'>
type(projectMgr): <type 'ghidra.GhidraRun$GhidraProjectManager'>
type(activeProject): <type 'ghidra.framework.project.DefaultProject'>
type(projectData): <type 'ghidra.framework.data.ProjectFileManager'>
type(rootFolder): <type 'ghidra.framework.data.RootGhidraFolder'>
The project 'pcodeproject' has 4 files in it:
pcodeproject:/WinSCP.exe
pcodeproject:/deobExampleX86
pcodeproject:/deobHookExampleX86
pcodeproject:/server
A Program is a binary component within a Ghidra Project. The snippets in this section deal with gathering information about the Programs within a Project.
state = getState()
currentProgram = state.getCurrentProgram()
name = currentProgram.getName()
location = currentProgram.getExecutablePath()
print("The currently loaded program is: '{}'".format(name))
print("Its location on disk is: '{}'".format(location))Output example
The currently loaded program is: 'deobExampleX86'
Its location on disk is: '/C:/Users/username/Desktop/pcode/emulation/deobExampleX86'
blocks = currentProgram.getMemory().getBlocks()
for block in blocks:
print("Name: {}, Size: {}".format(block.getName(), block.getSize()))Output example
Name: segment_2.1, Size: 568
Name: .interp, Size: 28
Name: .note.ABI-tag, Size: 32
Name: .note.gnu.build-id, Size: 36
Name: .gnu.hash, Size: 36
Name: .dynsym, Size: 360
Name: .dynstr, Size: 192
Name: .gnu.version, Size: 30
Name: .gnu.version_r, Size: 48
Name: .rela.dyn, Size: 216
Name: .rela.plt, Size: 192
Name: .init, Size: 23
Name: .plt, Size: 144
Name: .plt.got, Size: 8
Name: .text, Size: 706
Name: .fini, Size: 9
Name: .rodata, Size: 134
Name: .eh_frame_hdr, Size: 68
Name: .eh_frame, Size: 296
Name: .init_array, Size: 8
Name: .fini_array, Size: 8
Name: .dynamic, Size: 496
Name: .got, Size: 128
Name: .data, Size: 16
Name: .bss, Size: 16
Name: EXTERNAL, Size: 104
Name: .comment, Size: 43
Name: .shstrtab, Size: 254
Name: .strtab, Size: 672
Name: .symtab, Size: 1728
Name: _elfSectionHeaders, Size: 1856
A Function is a subroutine within an Program. The snippets in this section deal with gathering information about Functions and modifying them within an Program.
There are at least two ways to do this. The output is the same for each method.
# Method 1:
func = getFirstFunction()
while func is not None:
print("Function: {} @ 0x{}".format(func.getName(), func.getEntryPoint()))
func = getFunctionAfter(func)
# Method 2:
fm = currentProgram.getFunctionManager()
funcs = fm.getFunctions(True) # True means 'forward'
for func in funcs:
print("Function: {} @ 0x{}".format(func.getName(), func.getEntryPoint()))Output example
Function: _alloca_probe @ 0x1400a8e00
Function: FUN_1400a8e70 @ 0x1400a8e70
... snip ...
This snippet will help you correlate addresses with associated function names.
# helper function to get a Ghidra Address type
def getAddress(offset):
return currentProgram.getAddressFactory().getDefaultAddressSpace().getAddress(offset)
# get a FunctionManager reference for the current program
functionManager = currentProgram.getFunctionManager()
# getFunctionAt() only works with function entryPoint addresses!
# returns `None` if address is not the address of the first
# instruction in a defined function. Consider using
# getFunctionContaining() method instead.
addr = getAddress(0x00100690)
funcName = functionManager.getFunctionAt(addr).getName()
print(funcName)
# check if a specific address resides in a function
addr = getAddress(0x00100691)
print(functionManager.isInFunction(addr))
# get the function an address belongs to, returns `None` if the address
# is not part of a defined function.
addr = getAddress(0x00100691)
print(functionManager.getFunctionContaining(addr))Output example
main
True
main
Have a name for a function but want the entry point address for it? This will help you do that. Just remember that two or more functions can share the same name (due to function overloading), so Ghidra will return an array (Python list) you have to consider iterating over.
# Note that multiple functions can share the same name, so Ghidra's API
# returns a list of `Function` types. Just keep this in mind.
name = "main"
funcs = getGlobalFunctions(name)
print("Found {} function(s) with the name '{}'".format(len(funcs), name))
for func in funcs:
print("{} is located at 0x{}".format(func.getName(), func.getEntryPoint()))Output example
Found 1 function(s) with the name 'main'
main is located at 0x00100690
Ghidra makes it easy to find all cross references to a function using getReferencesTo. To use this, you'll just need the function's entry address which can be acquired using the getEntryPoint method on a function object. Let's take a look at an example where we find all cross references to functions named "system".
fm = currentProgram.getFunctionManager()
funcs = fm.getFunctions(True)
for func in funcs:
if func.getName() == "system":
print("\nFound 'system' @ 0x{}".format(func.getEntryPoint()))
entry_point = func.getEntryPoint()
references = getReferencesTo(entry_point)
for xref in references:
print(xref)Output example
Found 'system' @ 0x004024a0
From: 0040bd34 To: 004024a0 Type: UNCONDITIONAL_CALL Op: 0 DEFAULT
From: 0040a66c To: 004024a0 Type: UNCONDITIONAL_CALL Op: 0 DEFAULT
From: 00411dd8 To: 004024a0 Type: UNCONDITIONAL_CALL Op: 0 DEFAULT
From: 004155d8 To: 004024a0 Type: UNCONDITIONAL_CALL Op: 0 DEFAULT
From: 00415b20 To: 004024a0 Type: UNCONDITIONAL_CALL Op: 0 DEFAULT
From: 00415d4c To: 004024a0 Type: UNCONDITIONAL_CALL Op: 0 DEFAULT
Found 'system' @ 0x004300fc
From: 0042f2ec To: 004300fc Type: DATA Op: 0 DEFAULT
From: 004024a8 To: 004300fc Type: UNCONDITIONAL_CALL Op: 0 ANALYSIS
This snippet uses a TARGET_ADDR which should be the address of a call to return the call arguments at that address. Thanks to gipi for suggesting this much cleaner way to obtain function call arguments than previously listed!
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompileOptions
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompInterface
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
# # Disassembly shows: 00434f6c CALL FUN_00433ff0
# # Decompiler shows: uVar1 = FUN_00433ff0(param_1,param_2,param_3);
TARGET_ADDR = toAddr(0x00434f6c)
options = DecompileOptions()
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.setOptions(options)
ifc.openProgram(currentProgram)
func = getFunctionContaining(TARGET_ADDR)
res = ifc.decompileFunction(func, 60, monitor)
high_func = res.getHighFunction()
pcodeops = high_func.getPcodeOps(TARGET_ADDR)
op = pcodeops.next()
print(op.getInputs())Output example
array(ghidra.program.model.pcode.Varnode, [(ram, 0x433ff0, 8), (stack, 0x4, 4), (stack, 0x8, 4), (stack, 0xc, 4)])
In this snippet we locate cross references to a target function (TARGET_FUNC) and show how we can analyze the arguments passed to each call. This can be helpful in analyzing malware, or potentially vulnerable functions. For malware analysis, this may help "decrypt" strings, or in vulnerability research this may help locate functions that may be vulnerable if called with an incorrect value. The specific analysis performed on the arguments of a called target function are up to you. This snippet will allow you to add your own analysis as you see fit.
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompileOptions
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompInterface
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
TARGET_FUNC = "FUN_62de9540"
# Step 1. Get functions that call the target function ('callers')
target_addr = 0
callers = []
funcs = getGlobalFunctions(TARGET_FUNC)
for func in funcs:
if func.getName() == TARGET_FUNC:
print("\nFound {} @ 0x{}".format(TARGET_FUNC, func.getEntryPoint()))
target_addr = func.getEntryPoint()
references = getReferencesTo(target_addr)
for xref in references:
call_addr = xref.getFromAddress()
caller = getFunctionContaining(call_addr)
callers.append(caller)
break
# deduplicate callers
callers = list(set(callers))
# Step 2. Decompile all callers and find PCODE CALL operations leading to `target_add`
options = DecompileOptions()
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.setOptions(options)
ifc.openProgram(currentProgram)
for caller in callers:
res = ifc.decompileFunction(caller, 60, monitor)
high_func = res.getHighFunction()
lsm = high_func.getLocalSymbolMap()
symbols = lsm.getSymbols()
if high_func:
opiter = high_func.getPcodeOps()
while opiter.hasNext():
op = opiter.next()
mnemonic = str(op.getMnemonic())
if mnemonic == "CALL":
inputs = op.getInputs()
addr = inputs[0].getAddress()
args = inputs[1:] # List of VarnodeAST types
if addr == target_addr:
print("Call to {} at {} has {} arguments: {}".format(addr, op.getSeqnum().getTarget(), len(args), args))
for arg in args:
# Do stuff with each `arg` here...
# Not sure what to do? Check out this great article by Lars A. Wallenborn for some ideas:
# https://blag.nullteilerfrei.de/2020/02/02/defeating-sodinokibi-revil-string-obfuscation-in-ghidra/
# Specifically, search for the function implementation of "traceVarnodeValue"
passOutput example
Found FUN_62de9540 @ 0x62de9540
Call to 62de9540 at 62dede09 has 0 arguments: array(ghidra.program.model.pcode.Varnode)
Call to 62de9540 at 62dee3c1 has 0 arguments: array(ghidra.program.model.pcode.Varnode)
Call to 62de9540 at 62def2b2 has 0 arguments: array(ghidra.program.model.pcode.Varnode)
Call to 62de9540 at 62dea894 has 3 arguments: array(ghidra.program.model.pcode.Varnode, [(stack, 0x4, 4), (const, 0x0, 4), (const, 0x0, 4)])
Call to 62de9540 at 62ded7ec has 3 arguments: array(ghidra.program.model.pcode.Varnode, [(stack, 0x8, 4), (unique, 0x10000168, 4), (const, 0x0, 4)])
In some cases strings will either hint at or give the name of a function when symbols aren't available. In these cases, we can rename functions based on these strings to help perform reverse engineering. This becomes a daunting task when there are hundreds or thousands of these cases, making the process of copy, rename, paste, a soul crushing task. The power of tools like Ghidra is that you can script this. Take for example this decompiled function found in a binary:
undefined4 FUN_00056b58(void)
{
undefined4 in_r3;
register_function(1, "core_Init_Database", FUN_00058294);
register_function(1, "core_Clear_Database", FUN_00058374);
register_function(1, "core_Auth_Database", FUN_00058584);
register_function(1, "core_Add_User_Database", FUN_00058650);
// ... hundreds more in this function and in others ...
return in_r3;
}
In this function, we have calls to a register_function which correlates an event string with a handler function. We want to rename these functions so that FUN_00058294 becomes core_Init_Database and so on. Below is code that performs this task for every register_function in the target binary.
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompileOptions
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompInterface
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
def getString(addr):
mem = currentProgram.getMemory()
core_name_str = ""
while True:
byte = mem.getByte(addr.add(len(core_name_str)))
if byte == 0:
return core_name_str
core_name_str += chr(byte)
# Get decompiler interface
options = DecompileOptions()
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.setOptions(options)
ifc.openProgram(currentProgram)
# Get reference to `register_function`
fm = currentProgram.getFunctionManager()
funcs = fm.getFunctions(True)
register_function = None
for func in funcs:
if func.getName() == "register_function":
register_function = func
break
# Get xrefs to "register_function"
entry_point = register_function.getEntryPoint()
xrefs = getReferencesTo(entry_point)
callers = []
for xref in xrefs:
from_addr = xref.getFromAddress()
caller = fm.getFunctionContaining(from_addr)
if caller not in callers:
callers.append(caller)
# Process callers (functions calling `register_function`)
for caller in callers:
if not caller:
continue
res = ifc.decompileFunction(caller, 60, monitor)
hf = res.getHighFunction()
opiter = hf.getPcodeOps()
while opiter.hasNext():
op = opiter.next()
mnemonic = op.getMnemonic()
if mnemonic == "CALL":
call_target = op.getInput(0)
if call_target.getAddress() == entry_point:
core_name = op.getInput(2)
core_func = op.getInput(3)
core_name_def = core_name.getDef()
core_name_addr = toAddr(core_name_def.getInput(0).getOffset())
core_string = getString(core_name_addr)
core_func_addr = toAddr(core_func.getDef().getInput(1).getOffset())
core_func_obj = fm.getFunctionAt(core_func_addr)
core_func_obj.setName(core_string, ghidra.program.model.symbol.SourceType.DEFAULT)Output example
undefined4 FUN_00056b58(void)
{
undefined4 in_r3;
register_function(1, "core_Init_Database", core_Init_Database);
register_function(1, "core_Clear_Database", core_Clear_Database);
register_function(1, "core_Auth_Database", core_Auth_Database);
register_function(1, "core_Add_User_Database", core_Add_User_Database);
// ... hundreds more in this function and in others ...
return in_r3;
}
Just like objdump or a disas command in GDB, Ghidra provides a way to dump instructions if you need. You might do this to generate input for another application, or for documenting issues found during analysis. Whatever you use case might be, you can easily acquire the address, opcodes, and instruction text for a target function, or specific addresses.
from binascii import hexlify
listing = currentProgram.getListing()
main_func = getGlobalFunctions("main")[0] # assume there's only 1 function named 'main'
addrSet = main_func.getBody()
codeUnits = listing.getCodeUnits(addrSet, True) # true means 'forward'
for codeUnit in codeUnits:
print("0x{} : {:16} {}".format(codeUnit.getAddress(), hexlify(codeUnit.getBytes()), codeUnit.toString()))Output example
0x00100690 : 55 PUSH RBP
0x00100691 : 4889e5 MOV RBP,RSP
0x00100694 : 4883ec30 SUB RSP,0x30
0x00100698 : 897ddc MOV dword ptr [RBP + -0x24],EDI
0x0010069b : 488975d0 MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x30],RSI
0x0010069f : 488d051a010000 LEA RAX,[0x1007c0]
0x001006a6 : 488945f0 MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x10],RAX
0x001006aa : c745e800000000 MOV dword ptr [RBP + -0x18],0x0
0x001006b1 : eb4d JMP 0x00100700
0x001006b3 : 488b45f0 MOV RAX,qword ptr [RBP + -0x10]
0x001006b7 : 4889c7 MOV RDI,RAX
0x001006ba : e83bffffff CALL 0x001005fa
0x001006bf : 8945ec MOV dword ptr [RBP + -0x14],EAX
0x001006c2 : 8b55ec MOV EDX,dword ptr [RBP + -0x14]
0x001006c5 : 488b45f0 MOV RAX,qword ptr [RBP + -0x10]
0x001006c9 : 488d3570092000 LEA RSI,[0x301040]
0x001006d0 : 4889c7 MOV RDI,RAX
0x001006d3 : e84fffffff CALL 0x00100627
0x001006d8 : 488945f8 MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x8],RAX
0x001006dc : 8b45e8 MOV EAX,dword ptr [RBP + -0x18]
0x001006df : 8d5001 LEA EDX,[RAX + 0x1]
0x001006e2 : 8955e8 MOV dword ptr [RBP + -0x18],EDX
0x001006e5 : 488b55f8 MOV RDX,qword ptr [RBP + -0x8]
0x001006e9 : 89c6 MOV ESI,EAX
0x001006eb : 4889d7 MOV RDI,RDX
0x001006ee : e88fffffff CALL 0x00100682
0x001006f3 : 8b45ec MOV EAX,dword ptr [RBP + -0x14]
0x001006f6 : 4898 CDQE
0x001006f8 : 4883c001 ADD RAX,0x1
0x001006fc : 480145f0 ADD qword ptr [RBP + -0x10],RAX
0x00100700 : 488b45f0 MOV RAX,qword ptr [RBP + -0x10]
0x00100704 : 0fb600 MOVZX EAX,byte ptr [RAX]
0x00100707 : 84c0 TEST AL,AL
0x00100709 : 75a8 JNZ 0x001006b3
0x0010070b : b800000000 MOV EAX,0x0
0x00100710 : c9 LEAVE
0x00100711 : c3 RET
This snippet shows how to find all instructions in an x86 program that are calls or jumps to a regitser. This information can be useful when attempting to track down a crash by researching code flow in hard-to-debug targets. getRegister returns None when the specified index is not a regitser. We use startswith('J') to account for all jump variants. This is not architecture agnostic and a little goofy but it gets the job done.
listing = currentProgram.getListing()
func = getFirstFunction()
entryPoint = func.getEntryPoint()
instructions = listing.getInstructions(entryPoint, True)
for instruction in instructions:
addr = instruction.getAddress()
oper = instruction.getMnemonicString()
if (oper.startswith('CALL') or oper.startswith('J') and instruction.getRegister(0)):
print("0x{} : {}".format(addr, instruction))Output example
0x001004c8 : CALL RAX
0x00100544 : JMP RAX
0x00100595 : JMP RDX
0x00100771 : CALL R15
While recently preparing to teach some introductary x86, I wanted to know the most used mnemonics appearing in a given application to make sure I covered them. This is insanely easy to do in Binary Ninja, but a bit more involved in Ghidra. Essentially, we track mnemonics in a dictionary and increment the count as we process all instructions in a binary.
This requires getting a InstructionDB and using the getMnemonicString method to determine the mnemonic of the native assembly instruction. At the end of this snippet, we copy/pasta code from StackOverflow to sort our collected data without really thinking about how it works and we call it a day. All joking aside, this is a pretty neat way to prioritize which instructions you should focus on learning if you're learning a new architecture and don't know where to begin.
instructions = {}
af = currentProgram.getAddressFactory()
func = getFirstFunction()
addr = af.getAddress(str(func.getEntryPoint()))
ins = getInstructionAt(addr)
while ins is not None:
mnemonic = ins.getMnemonicString()
if mnemonic in instructions:
instructions[mnemonic] += 1
else:
instructions[mnemonic] = 1
ins = ins.getNext()
ins_sorted = [ (i,mnem) for mnem,i in instructions.iteritems() ]
ins_sorted.sort(reverse=True)
for i,mnem in ins_sorted:
print("{}: {}".format(i, mnem))Output example
178636: MOV
43836: CALL
35709: LEA
25479: CMP
19316: ADD
18943: JZ
15751: SUB
14636: TEST
14236: POP
13384: PUSH
<...snip...>
When working with refined PCode you'll almost exclusively be dealing with VarnodeAST or PCodeOpAST objects. Correlating these objects to stack variables is not something exposed by the Ghidra API (as far as I can tell in v9.2.2). This leads to a complex mess of taking a varnode and comparing it to the decompiler's stack variable symbols for a given function. It's not intutitive, and quite frankly, it's been the most confusing and complex thing I've done with the Ghidra API to date.
This function works when you're passing a Varnode/AST of a simple variable, say something like this:
memset(local_88,0,0x10);If you want to know what that the first argument (local_88) is named "local_88" and get its size, you can use this function. If that first parameter include nested PCodeOpASTs however, say something like (char *)local_a8, this function will not work because the variable is "wrapped" inside of a CAST operation. In order to work, this needs to be paired with get_vars_from_varnode (ctrl-f to find its definition) to unwrap this onion, isolate the variable VarnodeAST, and then pass it here. There's an example of doing that in this document under the heading "Get stack variables from a PcodeOpAST".
def get_stack_var_from_varnode(func, varnode):
if type(varnode) not in [Varnode, VarnodeAST]:
raise Exception("Invalid value. Expected `Varnode` or `VarnodeAST`, got {}.".format(type(varnode)))
bitness_masks = {
'16': 0xffff,
'32': 0xffffffff,
'64': 0xffffffffffffffff,
}
try:
addr_size = currentProgram.getMetadata()['Address Size']
bitmask = bitness_masks[addr_size]
except KeyError:
raise Exception("Unsupported bitness: {}. Add a bit mask for this target.".format(addr_size))
local_variables = func.getAllVariables()
vndef = varnode.getDef()
if vndef:
vndef_inputs = vndef.getInputs()
for defop_input in vndef_inputs:
defop_input_offset = defop_input.getAddress().getOffset() & bitmask
for lv in local_variables:
unsigned_lv_offset = lv.getMinAddress().getUnsignedOffset() & bitmask
if unsigned_lv_offset == defop_input_offset:
return lv
# If we get here, varnode is likely a "acStack##" variable.
hf = get_high_function(func)
lsm = hf.getLocalSymbolMap()
for vndef_input in vndef_inputs:
defop_input_offset = vndef_input.getAddress().getOffset() & bitmask
for symbol in lsm.getSymbols():
if symbol.isParameter():
continue
if defop_input_offset == symbol.getStorage().getFirstVarnode().getOffset() & bitmask:
return symbol
# unable to resolve stack variable for given varnode
return NoneOutput example
# This output corresponds to this line of code:
# memset(local_88,0,0x10);
# In PCode this line looks like this:
# --- CALL (ram, 0x102370, 8) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (const, 0x0, 4) , (const, 0x10, 8)
# The address of `memset` is: (ram, 0x102370, 8)
# The `local_88` variable is: (unique, 0x620, 8)
# We'll pass `(unique, 0x620, 8)` to `get_stack_var_from_varnode` to get the following output
# which will be a list of `ghidra.program.database.function.LocalVariableDB`.
[undefined2 local_88@Stack[-0x88]:2]
If you took a look at the code under the section "Get a stack variable from a Varnode or VarnodeAST", you'll probably be asking why that code works for something like: memset(local_88,0,0x10); but it fails for strchr((char *)local_a8,10);. The reason is that local_88 is a VarnodeAST while (char *)local_a8 is a PcodeOpAST. In other words, the local_a8 varnode is "wrapped" inside of a PcodeOpAST and you can't associate it to any kind of meaningful value without first "unwrapping" it. Of course, a wrapped VarnodeAST could be wrapped in numerous CAST operations and INT_ADD operations, etc. So how do we handle this? Recursion. * shudder *.
Fair warning, recursion is my computer science nemisis. If you look at this code and think "this is odd" - you're probably right!
That being said, let's slap something like (char *)local_a8 into this function and see if we can get the associated variable name(s) out of it. It's perfectly fine to pass a PcodeOpAST with multiple variables (e.g. (long)iVar2 + local_a0) into this function. It will just return a list of all variables contained in that VarnodeAST.
def get_vars_from_varnode(func, node, variables=None):
if type(node) not in [PcodeOpAST, VarnodeAST]:
raise Exception("Invalid value passed. Got {}.".format(type(node)))
# create `variables` list on first call. Do not make `variables` default to [].
if variables == None:
variables = []
# We must use `getDef()` on VarnodeASTs
if type(node) == VarnodeAST:
# For `get_stack_var_from_varnode` see:
# https://github.com/HackOvert/GhidraSnippets
# Ctrl-F for "get_stack_var_from_varnode"
var = get_stack_var_from_varnode(func, node)
if var and type(var) != HighSymbol:
variables.append(var.getName())
node = node.getDef()
if node:
variables = get_vars_from_varnode(func, node, variables)
# We must call `getInputs()` on PcodeOpASTs
elif type(node) == PcodeOpAST:
nodes = list(node.getInputs())
for node in nodes:
if type(node.getHigh()) == HighLocal:
variables.append(node.getHigh().getName())
else:
variables = get_vars_from_varnode(func, node, variables)
return variablesOutput example
Python output goes here...
Basic Blocks are collections of continuous non-branching instructions within Functions. They are joined by conditional and non-conditional branches, revealing valuable information about a program and function's code flow. This section deals with examples working with Basic Block models.
from ghidra.program.model.block import BasicBlockModel
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
funcName = 'main'
blockModel = BasicBlockModel(currentProgram)
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
func = getGlobalFunctions(funcName)[0]
print("Basic block details for function '{}':".format(funcName))
blocks = blockModel.getCodeBlocksContaining(func.getBody(), monitor)
# print first block
print("\t[*] {} ".format(func.getEntryPoint()))
# print any remaining blocks
while(blocks.hasNext()):
bb = blocks.next()
dest = bb.getDestinations(monitor)
while(dest.hasNext()):
dbb = dest.next()
# For some odd reason `getCodeBlocksContaining()` and `.next()`
# return the root basic block after CALL instructions (x86). To filter
# these out, we use `getFunctionAt()` which returns `None` if the address
# is not the entry point of a function. See:
# https://github.com/NationalSecurityAgency/ghidra/issues/855
if not getFunctionAt(dbb.getDestinationAddress()):
print("\t[*] {} ".format(dbb))Output example
Basic block details for function 'main':
[*] 00100690
[*] 001006b1 -> 00100700
[*] 001006fc -> 00100700
[*] 00100709 -> 001006b3
[*] 00100709 -> 0010070b
Ghidra's decompiler is an exceptional resource. In certain cases you might want to extract the decompiler output for a list of functions. Here's an easy way to gather that information. Just add your own file I/O code to dump everything to individual files for analysis.
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompInterface
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
program = getCurrentProgram()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.openProgram(program)
# here we assume there is only one function named `main`
function = getGlobalFunctions('main')[0]
# decompile the function and print the pseudo C
results = ifc.decompileFunction(function, 0, ConsoleTaskMonitor())
print(results.getDecompiledFunction().getC())Output example
undefined8 main(void)
{
uint uVar1;
undefined8 uVar2;
uint local_20;
undefined1 *local_18;
local_18 = data;
local_20 = 0;
while (*local_18 != '\0') {
uVar1 = length(local_18);
uVar2 = deobfuscate(local_18,buffer,(ulong)uVar1);
use_string(uVar2,(ulong)local_20,uVar2);
local_18 = local_18 + (long)(int)uVar1 + 1;
local_20 = local_20 + 1;
}
return 0;
}
Ghidra's decompiler performs a lot of analysis in order to recover variable information. If you're interested in getting this information you'll need to use the decompiler interface to get a high function and its symbols. Once you have this data, you can enumerate the symbols and retrieve information about variables in the target function. Let's take a look at an example decompiled function:
undefined8 func(int param_1,int param_2)
{
long in_FS_OFFSET;
uint auStack88 [8];
undefined4 auStack56 [10];
long local_10;
local_10 = *(long *)(in_FS_OFFSET + 0x28);
auStack56[param_1] = 1;
printf("%d\n",(ulong)auStack88[param_2]);
if (local_10 != *(long *)(in_FS_OFFSET + 0x28)) {
__stack_chk_fail();
}
return 0;
}The decompiled function above shows two stack variables that seem interesting to us; auStack88 and auStack56. Let's get that information programmatically.
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompileOptions
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompInterface
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
func_name = "func"
func = getGlobalFunctions(func_name)[0]
options = DecompileOptions()
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.setOptions(options)
ifc.openProgram(func.getProgram())
res = ifc.decompileFunction(func, 60, monitor)
high_func = res.getHighFunction()
lsm = high_func.getLocalSymbolMap()
symbols = lsm.getSymbols()
for i, symbol in enumerate(symbols):
print("\nSymbol {}:".format(i+1))
print(" name: {}".format(symbol.name))
print(" dataType: {}".format(symbol.dataType))
print(" getPCAddress: 0x{}".format(symbol.getPCAddress()))
print(" size: {}".format(symbol.size))
print(" storage: {}".format(symbol.storage))
print(" parameter: {}".format(symbol.parameter))
print(" readOnly: {}".format(symbol.readOnly))
print(" typeLocked: {}".format(symbol.typeLocked))
print(" nameLocked: {}".format(symbol.nameLocked))
print(" slot: {}".format(symbol.slot))Output example
Symbol 1:
name: auStack56
dataType: undefined4[10]
getPCAddress: 0xNone
size: 40
parameter: 0
readOnly: 0
typeLocked: 0
nameLocked: 0
slot: -1
storage: Stack[-0x38]:40
Symbol 2:
name: auStack88
dataType: uint[8]
getPCAddress: 0xNone
size: 32
parameter: 0
readOnly: 0
typeLocked: 0
nameLocked: 0
slot: -1
storage: Stack[-0x58]:32
Symbol 3:
name: in_FS_OFFSET
dataType: long
getPCAddress: 0x001006a9
size: 8
parameter: 0
readOnly: 0
typeLocked: 0
nameLocked: 0
slot: -1
storage: FS_OFFSET:8
Symbol 4:
name: local_10
dataType: long
getPCAddress: 0xNone
size: 8
parameter: 0
readOnly: 0
typeLocked: 0
nameLocked: 0
slot: -1
storage: Stack[-0x10]:8
Symbol 5:
name: param_1
dataType: int
getPCAddress: 0x001006a9
size: 4
parameter: 1
readOnly: 0
typeLocked: 0
nameLocked: 0
slot: 0
storage: EDI:4
Symbol 6:
name: param_2
dataType: int
getPCAddress: 0x001006a9
size: 4
parameter: 1
readOnly: 0
typeLocked: 0
nameLocked: 0
slot: 1
storage: ESI:4
Ghidra adds "automatic comments" (light gray in color) in the EOL field. Here's how you can access those comments.
from ghidra.app.util import DisplayableEol
listing = currentProgram.getListing()
func = getGlobalFunctions("frame_dummy")[0]
addrSet = func.getBody()
codeUnits = listing.getCodeUnits(addrSet, True)
for codeUnit in codeUnits:
deol = DisplayableEol(codeUnit, True, True, True, True, 5, True)
if deol.hasAutomatic():
ac = deol.getAutomaticComment()
print(type(ac))
print(ac)
print(ac[0])Output example
<type 'array.array'>
array(java.lang.String, [u'undefined register_tm_clones()'])
undefined register_tm_clones()
... snip ...
Ghidra supports 5 unique comment types users can add to their projects. This snippet shows you show to print all comments by type. This snippet is a slightly modified version of what user u/securisec posted in the Ghidra subreddit, r/ghidra. Thanks!
fm = currentProgram.getFunctionManager()
listing = currentProgram.getListing()
funcs = fm.getFunctions(True) # True means iterate forward
comment_types = {
0: 'EOL',
1: 'PRE',
2: 'POST',
3: 'PLATE',
4: 'REPEATABLE',
}
for func in funcs:
addrSet = func.getBody()
codeUnits = listing.getCodeUnits(addrSet, True)
for codeUnit in codeUnits:
for i, comment_type in comment_types.items():
comment = codeUnit.getComment(i)
if comment is not None:
comment = comment.decode("utf-8")
print("[{} : {}] {}: {}".format(func.name, codeUnit.address, comment_type, comment))Output example
[TclCompileSwitchCmd : 00058f3c] EOL: EOL COMMENT 000
[TclCompileSwitchCmd : 00058f3c] PRE: PRE-COMMENT 111
[TclCompileSwitchCmd : 00058f3c] POST: POST COMMENT 222
[TclCompileSwitchCmd : 00058f3c] PLATE: PLATE COMMENT 333
[TclCompileSwitchCmd : 00058f3c] REPEATABLE: REPEATABLE COMMENT 444
[getpagesize : 00110000] EOL: Grocery list: milk, cookies, santa trap
[getpagesize : 00110000] PRE: getpagesize@@GLIBC_2.0
Instruction emulation is an extremely powerful technique to asist in static code analysis. Rarely however, do we have the full memory context in which dynamic code executes. So while emulation can bring an element of 'dynamic' analysis to static RE, it's typically plagued with problems of unknown memory state. For simple code this might be no problem. For object oriented code this can be a major difficulty. Either way, some element of emulation can help tremendously in speeding up analysis. Ghidra uses its internal intermediate representation (PCode) to define what instructions do. Emulation is the process of tracking these changes in a cumulative state. Unfortunely Ghidra doesn't provide fancy GUI controls around the emulator (yet), but it's fully scriptable. Ghidra v9.1 added emprovements to the EmulatorHelper class, which is really quite amazing. Here's a simple example of what you can do with it.
from ghidra.app.emulator import EmulatorHelper
from ghidra.program.model.symbol import SymbolUtilities
# == Helper functions ======================================================
def getAddress(offset):
return currentProgram.getAddressFactory().getDefaultAddressSpace().getAddress(offset)
def getSymbolAddress(symbolName):
symbol = SymbolUtilities.getLabelOrFunctionSymbol(currentProgram, symbolName, None)
if (symbol != None):
return symbol.getAddress()
else:
raise("Failed to locate label: {}".format(symbolName))
def getProgramRegisterList(currentProgram):
pc = currentProgram.getProgramContext()
return pc.registers
# == Main function =========================================================
def main():
CONTROLLED_RETURN_OFFSET = 0
# Identify function to be emulated
mainFunctionEntry = getSymbolAddress("main")
# Establish emulation helper, please check out the API docs
# for `EmulatorHelper` - there's a lot of helpful things
# to help make architecture agnostic emulator tools.
emuHelper = EmulatorHelper(currentProgram)
# Set controlled return location so we can identify return from emulated function
controlledReturnAddr = getAddress(CONTROLLED_RETURN_OFFSET)
# Set initial RIP
mainFunctionEntryLong = int("0x{}".format(mainFunctionEntry), 16)
emuHelper.writeRegister(emuHelper.getPCRegister(), mainFunctionEntryLong)
# For x86_64 `registers` contains 872 registers! You probably don't
# want to print all of these. Just be aware, and print what you need.
# To see all supported registers. just print `registers`.
# We won't use this, it's just here to show you how to query
# valid registers for your target architecture.
registers = getProgramRegisterList(currentProgram)
# Here's a list of all the registers we want printed after each
# instruction. Modify this as you see fit, based on your architecture.
reg_filter = [
"RIP", "RAX", "RBX", "RCX", "RDX", "RSI", "RDI",
"RSP", "RBP", "rflags"
]
# Setup your desired starting state. By default, all registers
# and memory will be 0. This may or may not be acceptable for
# you. So please be aware.
emuHelper.writeRegister("RAX", 0x20)
emuHelper.writeRegister("RSP", 0x000000002FFF0000)
emuHelper.writeRegister("RBP", 0x000000002FFF0000)
# There are a couple of ways to write memory, use `writeMemoryValue` if you want
# to set a small typed value (e.g. uint64). Use `writeMemory` if you're mapping in
# a lot of memory (e.g. from a debugger memory dump). Note that each of these
# methods write with different endianess, see the example output.
emuHelper.writeMemoryValue(getAddress(0x000000000008C000), 4, 0x99AABBCC) # writes big endian
emuHelper.writeMemory(getAddress(0x00000000000CF000), b'\x99\xAA\xBB\xCC') # writes little endian
# You can verify writes worked, or just read memory at select points
# during emulation. Here's a couple of examples:
mem1 = emuHelper.readMemory(getAddress(0x000000000008C000), 4)
mem2 = emuHelper.readMemory(getAddress(0x00000000000CF000), 4)
print("Memory at 0x000000000008C000: {}".format(mem1))
print("Memory at 0x00000000000CF000: {}".format(mem2))
print("Emulation starting at 0x{}".format(mainFunctionEntry))
while monitor.isCancelled() is False:
# Check the current address in the program counter, if it's
# zero (our `CONTROLLED_RETURN_OFFSET` value) stop emulation.
# Set this to whatever end target you want.
executionAddress = emuHelper.getExecutionAddress()
if (executionAddress == controlledReturnAddr):
print("Emulation complete.")
return
# Print current instruction and the registers we care about
print("Address: 0x{} ({})".format(executionAddress, getInstructionAt(executionAddress)))
for reg in reg_filter:
reg_value = emuHelper.readRegister(reg)
print(" {} = {:#018x}".format(reg, reg_value))
# single step emulation
success = emuHelper.step(monitor)
if (success == False):
lastError = emuHelper.getLastError()
printerr("Emulation Error: '{}'".format(lastError))
return
# Cleanup resources and release hold on currentProgram
emuHelper.dispose()
# == Invoke main ===========================================================
main()Output example
Memory at 0x000000000008C000: array('b', [-52, -69, -86, -103])
Memory at 0x00000000000CF000: array('b', [-103, -86, -69, -52])
Emulation starting at 0x00100690
Address: 0x00100690 (PUSH RBP)
RIP = 0x0000000000100690
RAX = 0x0000000000000020
RBX = 0x0000000000000000
RCX = 0x0000000000000000
RDX = 0x0000000000000000
RSI = 0x0000000000000000
RDI = 0x0000000000000000
RSP = 0x000000002fff0000
RBP = 0x000000002fff0000
rflags = 0x0000000000000000
Address: 0x00100691 (MOV RBP,RSP)
RIP = 0x0000000000100691
RAX = 0x0000000000000020
RBX = 0x0000000000000000
RCX = 0x0000000000000000
RDX = 0x0000000000000000
RSI = 0x0000000000000000
RDI = 0x0000000000000000
RSP = 0x000000002ffefff8
RBP = 0x000000002fff0000
rflags = 0x0000000000000000
Address: 0x00100694 (SUB RSP,0x30)
RIP = 0x0000000000100694
RAX = 0x0000000000000020
RBX = 0x0000000000000000
RCX = 0x0000000000000000
RDX = 0x0000000000000000
RSI = 0x0000000000000000
RDI = 0x0000000000000000
RSP = 0x000000002ffefff8
RBP = 0x000000002ffefff8
rflags = 0x0000000000000000
Address: 0x00100698 (MOV dword ptr [RBP + -0x24],EDI)
RIP = 0x0000000000100698
RAX = 0x0000000000000020
RBX = 0x0000000000000000
RCX = 0x0000000000000000
RDX = 0x0000000000000000
RSI = 0x0000000000000000
RDI = 0x0000000000000000
RSP = 0x000000002ffeffc8
RBP = 0x000000002ffefff8
rflags = 0x0000000000000000
... snip ...
PCode exists in two primary forms you as a user should consider, "raw" and "refined". In documentation both forms are simply referred to as "PCode" making it confusing to talk about - so I distinguish between the forms using raw and refined. Just know theses are not universally accepted terms.
So raw PCode is the first pass, and the form that's displayed in the "Listing" pane inside the Ghidra UI. It's extremely verbose and explicit. This is the form you want to use when emulating, if you're writing a symbolic executor, or anything of the sort. If you want details from the decompiler passes, you want to analyze refined PCode, not this stuff! So what does it look like and how do you access it? Let's take a look.
def dump_raw_pcode(func):
func_body = func.getBody()
listing = currentProgram.getListing()
opiter = listing.getInstructions(func_body, True)
while opiter.hasNext():
op = opiter.next()
raw_pcode = op.getPcode()
print("{}".format(op))
for entry in raw_pcode:
print(" {}".format(entry))
func = getGlobalFunctions("main")[0] # assumes only one function named `main`
dump_raw_pcode(func) # dump raw pcode as stringsOutput example
Note that this looks different from the raw pcode you'll see in the UI (if you enable the PCode field) but it is exactly the same. It's just not formatted to print the same. Please run this against your own target function and you'll see what I mean.
PUSH RBP
(unique, 0x2510, 8) COPY (register, 0x28, 8)
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (unique, 0x2510, 8)
MOV RBP,RSP
(register, 0x28, 8) COPY (register, 0x20, 8)
SUB RSP,0x50
(register, 0x200, 1) INT_LESS (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x50, 8)
(register, 0x20b, 1) INT_SBORROW (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x50, 8)
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x50, 8)
(register, 0x207, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x0, 8)
(register, 0x206, 1) INT_EQUAL (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x0, 8)
MOV dword ptr [RBP + -0x44],EDI
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffbc, 8)
(unique, 0x1fd0, 4) COPY (register, 0x38, 4)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x1fd0, 4)
MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x50],RSI
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffb0, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) COPY (register, 0x30, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
MOV RAX,qword ptr FS:[0x28]
(unique, 0x9e0, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x28, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x9e0, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x8],RAX
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xfffffffffffffff8, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
XOR EAX,EAX
(register, 0x200, 1) COPY (const, 0x0, 1)
(register, 0x20b, 1) COPY (const, 0x0, 1)
(register, 0x0, 4) INT_XOR (register, 0x0, 4) , (register, 0x0, 4)
(register, 0x0, 8) INT_ZEXT (register, 0x0, 4)
(register, 0x207, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x0, 4) , (const, 0x0, 4)
(register, 0x206, 1) INT_EQUAL (register, 0x0, 4) , (const, 0x0, 4)
CMP dword ptr [RBP + -0x44],0x1
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffbc, 8)
(unique, 0x1fe0, 4) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x200, 1) INT_LESS (unique, 0x1fe0, 4) , (const, 0x1, 4)
(unique, 0x1fe0, 4) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x20b, 1) INT_SBORROW (unique, 0x1fe0, 4) , (const, 0x1, 4)
(unique, 0x1fe0, 4) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(unique, 0x5950, 4) INT_SUB (unique, 0x1fe0, 4) , (const, 0x1, 4)
(register, 0x207, 1) INT_SLESS (unique, 0x5950, 4) , (const, 0x0, 4)
(register, 0x206, 1) INT_EQUAL (unique, 0x5950, 4) , (const, 0x0, 4)
JG 0x00100743
(unique, 0x2220, 1) BOOL_NEGATE (register, 0x206, 1)
(unique, 0x2230, 1) INT_EQUAL (register, 0x20b, 1) , (register, 0x207, 1)
(unique, 0x2250, 1) BOOL_AND (unique, 0x2220, 1) , (unique, 0x2230, 1)
--- CBRANCH (ram, 0x100743, 8) , (unique, 0x2250, 1)
MOV RAX,qword ptr [RBP + -0x50]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffb0, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
MOV RAX,qword ptr [RAX]
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (register, 0x0, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
MOV RSI,RAX
(register, 0x30, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
LEA RDI,[0x1008a4]
(register, 0x38, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008a4, 8)
MOV EAX,0x0
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
CALL 0x001005d0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x100739, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8)
MOV EAX,0x1
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (const, 0x1, 8)
JMP 0x001007ff
--- BRANCH (ram, 0x1007ff, 8)
MOV RAX,0x4242424241414141
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (const, 0x4242424241414141, 8)
MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x1c],RAX
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
MOV word ptr [RBP + -0x14],0x43
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffec, 8)
(unique, 0x1fc0, 2) COPY (const, 0x43, 2)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x1fc0, 2)
MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x2c],0x0
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)
(unique, 0x2000, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x2000, 8)
LEA RDX,[RBP + -0x1c]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 8)
(register, 0x10, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
LEA RAX,[RBP + -0x2c]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
MOV RSI,RDX
(register, 0x30, 8) COPY (register, 0x10, 8)
MOV RDI,RAX
(register, 0x38, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
CALL 0x001005b0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x100772, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005b0, 8)
LEA RAX,[RBP + -0x2c]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
MOV RSI,RAX
(register, 0x30, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
LEA RDI,[0x1008b6]
(register, 0x38, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008b6, 8)
MOV EAX,0x0
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
CALL 0x001005d0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x10078a, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8)
MOV qword ptr [RBP + -0x24],0x0
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)
(unique, 0x2000, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x2000, 8)
MOV RAX,qword ptr [RBP + -0x50]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffb0, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
ADD RAX,0x8
(register, 0x200, 1) INT_CARRY (register, 0x0, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
(register, 0x20b, 1) INT_SCARRY (register, 0x0, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x0, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
(register, 0x207, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x0, 8) , (const, 0x0, 8)
(register, 0x206, 1) INT_EQUAL (register, 0x0, 8) , (const, 0x0, 8)
MOV RDX,qword ptr [RAX]
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (register, 0x0, 8)
(register, 0x10, 8) COPY (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
LEA RAX,[RBP + -0x24]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
MOV RSI,RDX
(register, 0x30, 8) COPY (register, 0x10, 8)
MOV RDI,RAX
(register, 0x38, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
CALL 0x001005b0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x1007ac, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005b0, 8)
LEA RAX,[RBP + -0x24]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
MOV RSI,RAX
(register, 0x30, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
LEA RDI,[0x1008c2]
(register, 0x38, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008c2, 8)
MOV EAX,0x0
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
CALL 0x001005d0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x1007c4, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8)
MOV dword ptr [RBP + -0x31],0x39393939
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffcf, 8)
(unique, 0x1fe0, 4) COPY (const, 0x39393939, 4)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x1fe0, 4)
MOV byte ptr [RBP + -0x2d],0x0
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffd3, 8)
(unique, 0x1fa0, 1) COPY (const, 0x0, 1)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x1fa0, 1)
LEA RDX,[RBP + -0x31]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffcf, 8)
(register, 0x10, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
LEA RAX,[RBP + -0x12]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffee, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
MOV RSI,RDX
(register, 0x30, 8) COPY (register, 0x10, 8)
MOV RDI,RAX
(register, 0x38, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
CALL 0x001005b0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x1007e2, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005b0, 8)
LEA RAX,[RBP + -0x12]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffee, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (unique, 0x620, 8)
MOV RSI,RAX
(register, 0x30, 8) COPY (register, 0x0, 8)
LEA RDI,[0x1008cf]
(register, 0x38, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008cf, 8)
MOV EAX,0x0
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
CALL 0x001005d0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x1007fa, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8)
MOV EAX,0x0
(register, 0x0, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
MOV RCX,qword ptr [RBP + -0x8]
(unique, 0x620, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x28, 8) , (const, 0xfffffffffffffff8, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x8, 8) COPY (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
XOR RCX,qword ptr FS:[0x28]
(unique, 0x9e0, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x28, 8)
(register, 0x200, 1) COPY (const, 0x0, 1)
(register, 0x20b, 1) COPY (const, 0x0, 1)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x9e0, 8)
(register, 0x8, 8) INT_XOR (register, 0x8, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
(register, 0x207, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x8, 8) , (const, 0x0, 8)
(register, 0x206, 1) INT_EQUAL (register, 0x8, 8) , (const, 0x0, 8)
JZ 0x00100813
--- CBRANCH (ram, 0x100813, 8) , (register, 0x206, 1)
CALL 0x001005c0
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_SUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- STORE (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x100813, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005c0, 8)
LEAVE
(register, 0x20, 8) COPY (register, 0x28, 8)
(register, 0x28, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8)
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
RET
(register, 0x288, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 8) , (register, 0x20, 8)
(register, 0x20, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
--- RETURN (register, 0x288, 8)
PCode exists in two primary forms you as a user should consider, "raw" and "refined". In documentation both forms are simply referred to as "PCode" making it confusing to talk about - so I distinguish between the forms using raw and refined. Just know theses are not universally accepted terms.
So refined PCode is heavily processed. It highly relates to the output you see in the decompiler, and if you're interested in making use of the Ghidra decompiler passes, this is the form of PCode you'll want to analyze. There are many interesting aspects of refined PCode we do not cover here, including unique values and name spaces. Just know that what might appear to be simple has a lot of analysis backing it and digging into these refined PCode elements are worth your time.
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompileOptions, DecompInterface
# == helper functions =============================================================================
def get_high_function(func):
options = DecompileOptions()
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.setOptions(options)
ifc.openProgram(getCurrentProgram())
# Setting a simplification style will strip useful `indirect` information.
# Please don't use this unless you know why you're using it.
#ifc.setSimplificationStyle("normalize")
res = ifc.decompileFunction(func, 60, monitor)
high = res.getHighFunction()
return high
def dump_refined_pcode(func, high_func):
opiter = high_func.getPcodeOps()
while opiter.hasNext():
op = opiter.next()
print("{}".format(op.toString()))
# == run examples =================================================================================
func = getGlobalFunctions("main")[0] # assumes only one function named `main`
hf = get_high_function(func) # we need a high function from the decompiler
dump_refined_pcode(func, hf) # dump straight refined pcode as stringsOutput example
Notice how this looks quite different than the raw PCode.
(unique, 0x10000110, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x28, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x9e0, 8)
(unique, 0x9e0, 8) CAST (unique, 0x10000110, 8)
(unique, 0x2250, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x38, 4) , (const, 0x2, 4)
--- CBRANCH (ram, 0x100743, 1) , (unique, 0x2250, 1)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (register, 0x30, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8) , (unique, 0x100000a8, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
(register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4)
(unique, 0x100000a8, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008a4, 8)
--- BRANCH (ram, 0x1007ff, 1)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) COPY (const, 0x4242424241414141, 8)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) COPY (const, 0x43, 2)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005b0, 8) , (unique, 0x10000118, 8) , (unique, 0x10000120, 8)
(register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x5d, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x5d, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x5d, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x5d, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) , (const, 0x5d, 4)
(unique, 0x10000118, 8) CAST (unique, 0x620, 8)
(unique, 0x10000120, 8) CAST (unique, 0x620, 8)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8) , (unique, 0x100000b0, 8) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x65, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x65, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x65, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x65, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x65, 4)
(unique, 0x100000b0, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008b6, 8)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) COPY (const, 0x0, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) PTRADD (register, 0x30, 8) , (const, 0x1, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8)
(unique, 0x10000128, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (register, 0x0, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) CAST (unique, 0x10000128, 8)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005b0, 8) , (unique, 0x10000130, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
(register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x79, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4)
(unique, 0x10000130, 8) CAST (unique, 0x620, 8)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8) , (unique, 0x100000b8, 8) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x81, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4)
(unique, 0x100000b8, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008c2, 8)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) COPY (const, 0x39393939, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) COPY (const, 0x0, 1)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 8)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffe6, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005b0, 8) , (unique, 0x620, 8) , (unique, 0x10000138, 8)
(register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4)
(unique, 0x10000138, 8) CAST (unique, 0x620, 8)
(unique, 0x620, 8) PTRSUB (register, 0x20, 8) , (const, 0xffffffffffffffe6, 8)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8) , (unique, 0x100000c0, 8) , (unique, 0x620, 8)
(register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4)
(unique, 0x100000c0, 8) COPY (const, 0x1008cf, 8)
(register, 0x0, 8) INT_ZEXT (unique, 0x1000009c, 1)
(register, 0x110, 8) MULTIEQUAL (register, 0x110, 8) , (register, 0x110, 8)
(unique, 0x1000009c, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x38, 4) , (const, 0x2, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8)
(unique, 0x10000140, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x28, 8)
(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x9e0, 8)
(register, 0x206, 1) INT_NOTEQUAL (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)
(unique, 0x9e0, 8) CAST (unique, 0x10000140, 8)
--- CBRANCH (ram, 0x100813, 1) , (register, 0x206, 1)
--- CALL (ram, 0x1005c0, 8)
--- RETURN (const, 0x1, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (const, 0x42, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (const, 0x42, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4)
(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x42, 4)
(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4)
--- RETURN (const, 0x0, 8) , (register, 0x0, 8)
Ghidra does not define a default graph provider, so you cannot graph abstract synatax trees out of the box. Here's a snippet that takes elements from Ghidra's Graph Java snippets and hacks them together to get an SVG version of a function's AST. This requires you to have GraphViz installed with the dot binary in your PATH, and networkx and pydot accessible from the Ghidra Jython console. Basically, I just copy my Python2 site-packages over to my ghidra_scripts directory and everything works. Keep in mind that if your Python module uses a natively compiled element (like Matplot lib does), you won't be able to use it in Jython. If you know of a way, please let me know.
import networkx as nx
import pydot
from ghidra.app.script import GhidraScript
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompileOptions, DecompInterface
from ghidra.program.model.pcode import PcodeOp
def buildAST(func):
options = DecompileOptions()
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.setOptions(options)
ifc.openProgram(getCurrentProgram())
ifc.setSimplificationStyle("normalize")
res = ifc.decompileFunction(func, 60, monitor)
high = res.getHighFunction()
return high
def buildGraph(graph, func, high):
vertices = {}
opiter = getPcodeOpIterator(high)
while opiter.hasNext():
op = opiter.next()
vert = createOpVertex(func, op)
graph.add_node(vert)
for i in range(0, op.getNumInputs()):
opcode = op.getOpcode()
if (i == 0 and (opcode == PcodeOp.LOAD or opcode == PcodeOp.STORE)):
continue
if (i == 1 and opcode == PcodeOp.INDIRECT):
continue
vn = op.getInput(i)
if (vn != None):
v = getVarnodeVertex(graph, vertices, vn)
graph.add_edge(v, vert)
outvn = op.getOutput()
if (outvn != None):
outv = getVarnodeVertex(graph, vertices, outvn)
if (outv != None):
graph.add_edge(vert, outv)
def createOpVertex(func, op):
name = op.getMnemonic()
id = getOpKey(op)
opcode = op.getOpcode()
if ((opcode == PcodeOp.LOAD) or (opcode == PcodeOp.STORE)):
vn = op.getInput(0)
addrspace = currentProgram.getAddressFactory().getAddressSpace(vn.getOffset())
name += ' ' + addrspace.getName()
elif (opcode == PcodeOp.INDIRECT):
vn = op.getInput(1)
if (vn != None):
indOp = high.getOpRef(vn.getOffset())
if (indOp != None):
name += " (" + indOp.getMnemonic() + ")"
return "{}_{}".format(name, id)
def createVarnodeVertex(graph, vn):
name = str(vn.getAddress())
id = getVarnodeKey(vn)
if (vn.isRegister()):
reg = currentProgram.getRegister(vn.getAddress(), vn.getSize())
if (reg != None):
name = reg.getName()
return "{}_{}".format(name, id)
def getVarnodeVertex(graph, vertices, vn):
res = None
try:
res = vertices[str(vn.getUniqueId())]
except KeyError:
res = None
if (res == None):
res = createVarnodeVertex(graph, vn)
vertices[str(vn.getUniqueId())] = res
return res
def getAddress(offset):
return currentProgram.getAddressFactory().getDefaultAddressSpace().getAddress(offset)
def getOpKey(op):
sq = op.getSeqnum()
id = str(sq.getTarget()) + " o " + str(op.getSeqnum().getTime())
return id
def getPcodeOpIterator(high):
return high.getPcodeOps()
def getVarnodeKey(vn):
op = vn.getDef()
id = ""
if (op != None):
id = str(op.getSeqnum().getTarget()) + " v " + str(vn.getUniqueId())
else:
id = "i v " + str(vn.getUniqueId())
return id
def main():
graph = nx.DiGraph()
listing = currentProgram.getListing()
func = getFunctionContaining(getAddress(0x00100690))
high = buildAST(func)
buildGraph(graph, func, high)
dot_data = nx.nx_pydot.to_pydot(graph)
svg = pydot.graph_from_dot_data(dot_data.to_string())[0].create_svg()
svg_path = "C:\\Users\\username\\Desktop\\test.svg"
f = open(svg_path, 'w')
f.write(svg)
f.close()
print("Wrote pydot SVG of graph to: {}\nNodes: {}, Edges: {}".format(svg_path, len(graph.nodes), len(graph.edges)))
main()Output example
# also writes a file called 'test.svg' to the Windows Desktop for user 'username'.
Wrote pydot SVG of graph to: C:\Users\username\Desktop\test.svg
Nodes: 47, Edges: 48
Ghidra's complex API allows for the creation of various graph structures including directional graphs (digraphs). This example shows how to create a DiGraph of vertices (functions) and edges (calls from/to).
Note that adding a vertex or an edge between two vertex entries does not reuse or override them! This is because, while many nodes share the same name, they contain unique hash codes (keys). If you were looking to trim this graph to include only unqiue nodes, you would need to consider both the name of the symbol and its address to account for overridden functions.
In its current form, this DiGraph is unlikely to be of any use to you. But the building blocks of creating interesting control flow graphs (CFG), program dependence graphs (PDG), data dependency graphs (DDG), and other graphs are all here.
from ghidra.util.graph import DirectedGraph
from ghidra.util.graph import Edge
from ghidra.util.graph import Vertex
def getAddress(offset):
return currentProgram.getAddressFactory().getDefaultAddressSpace().getAddress(offset)
digraph = DirectedGraph()
listing = currentProgram.getListing()
fm = currentProgram.getFunctionManager()
funcs = fm.getFunctions(True) # True mean iterate forward
for func in funcs:
# Add function vertices
print("Function: {} @ 0x{}".format(func.getName(), func.getEntryPoint())) # FunctionDB
digraph.add(Vertex(func))
# Add edges for static calls
entryPoint = func.getEntryPoint()
instructions = listing.getInstructions(entryPoint, True)
for instruction in instructions:
addr = instruction.getAddress()
oper = instruction.getMnemonicString()
if oper == "CALL":
print(" 0x{} : {}".format(addr, instruction))
flows = instruction.getFlows()
if len(flows) == 1:
target_addr = "0x{}".format(flows[0])
digraph.add(Edge(Vertex(func), Vertex(fm.getFunctionAt(getAddress(target_addr)))))
print("DiGraph info:")
edges = digraph.edgeIterator()
while edges.hasNext():
edge = edges.next()
from_vertex = edge.from()
to_vertex = edge.to()
print(" Edge from {} to {}".format(from_vertex, to_vertex))
vertices = digraph.vertexIterator()
while vertices.hasNext():
vertex = vertices.next()
print(" Vertex: {} (key: {})".format(vertex, vertex.key()))
# some extra stuff you might want to see
#print(" type(vertex): {}".format(type(vertex)))
#print(" vertex.hashCode(): {}".format(vertex.hashCode()))
#print(" vertex.referent(): {}".format(vertex.referent()))
#print(" type(referent): {}".format(type(vertex.referent())))Output example
Function: main @ 0x0010064a
0x00100691 : CALL 0x00100520
0x001006cc : CALL 0x001004f0
0x001006e9 : CALL qword ptr [R12 + RBX*0x8]
<...snip...>
DiGraph info:
Edge from _init to __gmon_start__
Edge from _init to __libc_start_main
Edge from _init to __cxa_finalize
Edge from _init to deregister_tm_clones
Edge from _init to printf
Edge from _init to _init
Edge from printf to __libc_start_main
Edge from printf to __cxa_finalize
<...snip...>
Vertex: _init (key: 3690)
Vertex: main (key: 3803)
Vertex: main (key: 3804)
Vertex: printf (key: 3805)
Vertex: main (key: 3807)
Vertex: _init (key: 3808)
Vertex: __libc_csu_init (key: 3810)
Vertex: _init (key: 3812)
Vertex: __libc_csu_fini (key: 3814)
<...snip...>
Given a specific varnode, Ghidra is able to generate backward and forward program slices. This functionality is contained in the DecompilerUtils class as four functions; getBackwardSlice, getForwardSlice, getForwardSliceToPCodeOps, and getBackwardSliceToPCodeOps.
You can read more about program slicing online, but the idea is to focus on a specific varnode (say a variable) and slice away anything unrelated to it so you're left with a slice of program related to the element you're interested in. In the Ghidra UI you can right-click a variable and select a program slice option and Ghidra will highlight the slice. If you right-click and don't see an option, you're not clicking on a compatable varnode / element, try something else.
from ghidra.util.task import ConsoleTaskMonitor
from ghidra.app.decompiler import DecompileOptions, DecompInterface
from ghidra.app.decompiler.component import DecompilerUtils
# == helper functions =============================================================================
def get_high_function(func):
options = DecompileOptions()
monitor = ConsoleTaskMonitor()
ifc = DecompInterface()
ifc.setOptions(options)
ifc.openProgram(getCurrentProgram())
res = ifc.decompileFunction(func, 60, monitor)
high = res.getHighFunction()
return high
# == run examples =================================================================================
func = getGlobalFunctions("main")[0]
hf = get_high_function(func)
lsm = hf.getLocalSymbolMap()
symbols = lsm.getSymbols()
for symbol in symbols:
print("\nSymbol name: {}".format(symbol.getName()))
hv = symbol.getHighVariable()
# Try this snippet with `hv.getInstances()` to enumerate slices for all instances!
varnode = hv.getRepresentative()
print("Varnode: {}".format(varnode))
fs = DecompilerUtils.getForwardSlice(varnode)
print("Forward Slice: {}".format(fs))
bs = DecompilerUtils.getBackwardSlice(varnode)
print("Backward Slice: {}".format(bs))
bswo = DecompilerUtils.getBackwardSliceToPCodeOps(varnode)
print("Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: {}".format(bswo))
fswo = DecompilerUtils.getForwardSliceToPCodeOps(varnode)
print("Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: {}".format(fswo))Output examples
You might think these slices are returning arrays (Python lists) with the name varnodes duplacted over and over - but that's not the case. Each use has a unique ID that ties it to other operations and uses. The printed varnodes may look the same, but these are all unique instances with more data under the hood. Experiment a bit and you'll see what I mean.
Symbol name: local_1c
Varnode: (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x32, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe4, 2) , (const, 0x42, 4)]
Symbol name: local_24
Varnode: (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffdc, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4)]
Symbol name: local_35
Varnode: (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (const, 0x42, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (const, 0x32, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcb, 1)]
Symbol name: param_1
Varnode: (register, 0x38, 4)
Forward Slice: [(register, 0x38, 4), (unique, 0x2250, 1), (register, 0x0, 8), (unique, 0x1000009c, 1)]
Backward Slice: [(register, 0x38, 4)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(unique, 0x2250, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x38, 4) , (const, 0x2, 4), (register, 0x0, 8) INT_ZEXT (unique, 0x1000009c, 1), (unique, 0x1000009c, 1) INT_SLESS (register, 0x38, 4) , (const, 0x2, 4), --- CBRANCH (ram, 0x100743, 1) , (unique, 0x2250, 1), --- RETURN (const, 0x0, 8) , (register, 0x0, 8)]
Symbol name: param_2
Varnode: (register, 0x30, 8)
Forward Slice: [(register, 0x30, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8), (unique, 0x10000128, 8), (register, 0x0, 8)]
Backward Slice: [(register, 0x30, 8)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (register, 0x30, 8), (unique, 0x10000128, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (register, 0x0, 8), --- CALL (ram, 0x1005d0, 8) , (unique, 0x100000a8, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8), (register, 0x0, 8) PTRADD (register, 0x30, 8) , (const, 0x1, 8) , (const, 0x8, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) CAST (unique, 0x10000128, 8), --- CALL (ram, 0x1005b0, 8) , (unique, 0x10000130, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)]
Symbol name: in_FS_OFFSET
Varnode: (register, 0x110, 8)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (unique, 0x9e0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (register, 0x206, 1), (register, 0x110, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (unique, 0x9e0, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (unique, 0x10000110, 8), (register, 0x110, 8), (unique, 0x10000140, 8)]
Backward Slice: [(register, 0x110, 8)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(unique, 0x10000140, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x28, 8), (register, 0x206, 1) INT_NOTEQUAL (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) , (const, 0x5d, 4), (unique, 0x9e0, 8) CAST (unique, 0x10000110, 8), (unique, 0x9e0, 8) CAST (unique, 0x10000140, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x9e0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4), (register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x5d, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x65, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x9e0, 8), (register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4), (register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4), --- CBRANCH (ram, 0x100813, 1) , (register, 0x206, 1), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4), (unique, 0x10000110, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x28, 8), (register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4), (register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4), (register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x65, 4), (register, 0x110, 8) MULTIEQUAL (register, 0x110, 8) , (register, 0x110, 8), (register, 0x110, 8) INDIRECT (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4)]
Symbol name: local_10
Varnode: (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (register, 0x206, 1), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (const, 0x5d, 4), (register, 0x110, 8), (unique, 0x10000110, 8), (unique, 0x9e0, 8), (const, 0x1b1, 4), (const, 0x28, 8), (unique, 0x1ff0, 8)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(unique, 0x1ff0, 8) LOAD (const, 0x1b1, 4) , (unique, 0x9e0, 8), (unique, 0x10000110, 8) INT_ADD (register, 0x110, 8) , (const, 0x28, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (unique, 0x1ff0, 8) , (const, 0x5d, 4), (unique, 0x9e0, 8) CAST (unique, 0x10000110, 8)]
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x65, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8), (register, 0x206, 1) INT_NOTEQUAL (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (unique, 0x1ff0, 8), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x81, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x90, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x98, 4), (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xfffffffffffffff0, 8) , (const, 0x79, 4), --- CBRANCH (ram, 0x100813, 1) , (register, 0x206, 1)]
Symbol name: local_1a
Varnode: (stack, 0xffffffffffffffe6, 10)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe6, 10)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffe6, 10)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Symbol name: local_34
Varnode: (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffcc, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4)]
Symbol name: local_2c
Varnode: (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x32, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffd4, 8) , (const, 0x42, 4)]
Symbol name: local_39
Varnode: (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4)
Forward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4)]
Backward Slice: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4)]
Backward Slice w/ PCode Ops: []
Forward Slice w/ PCode Ops: [(stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (const, 0x32, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) MULTIEQUAL (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4), (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) INDIRECT (stack, 0xffffffffffffffc7, 4) , (const, 0x42, 4)]