types as C-structs

base/pointer.jl

@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ unsafe_store!{T}(p::Ptr{T}, x) = pointerset(p, convert(T,x), 1)
 # convert a raw Ptr to an object reference, and vice-versa
 unsafe_pointer_to_objref(x::Ptr) = ccall(:jl_value_ptr, Any, (Ptr{Void},), x)
 pointer_from_objref(x::ANY) = ccall(:jl_value_ptr, Ptr{Void}, (Any,), x)
-data_pointer_from_objref(x::ANY) = pointer_from_objref(x)::Ptr{Void}+Core.sizeof(Int)
+data_pointer_from_objref(x::ANY) = pointer_from_objref(x)::Ptr{Void}
 
 eltype{T}(::Type{Ptr{T}}) = T
 

doc/devdocs/eval.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+******************
+Eval of Julia code
+******************
+
+One of the hardest parts about learning how the Julia Language runs code is learning
+how all of the pieces work together to execute a block of code.
+
+Each chunk of code typically makes a trip through many esoteric acronyms such as (in no particular order),
+`flisp`, `AST`, `C++`, `LLVM`, `eval`, `typeinf`, `macroexpand`, `sysimg` (or `system image`), `bootstrapping`,
+`compile`, `parse`, `execute`, `JIT`, `interpret`, `box`, `unbox`, `intrinsic function`, `primitive function`
+before turning into the desired result (hopefully).
+
+Julia Execution
+---------------
+
+The 10,000 foot view of the whole process is as follows:
+
+.. sidebar:: Definitions
+
+ REPL
+ REPL stands for Read-Eval-Print Loop.
+ It's just what we call the command line environment for short.
+
+ AST
+ Abstract Syntax Tree
+ The AST is the digital representation of the code structure.
+ In this form the code has been tokenized for meaning
+ so that it is more suitable for manipulation and execution.
+
+1. The user starts `julia`
+2. The C function `main()` from `ui/repl.c` gets called.
+ This funcion processes the command line arguments, filling in the `jl_compileropts` struct and setting the variable :code:`ARGS`.
+ It then initializes Julia (by calling `julia_init in task.c <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/task.c>`_,
+ which may load a previously compiled sysimg_).
+ Finally, it passes off control to Julia by calling `Base._start() <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/base/client.jl>`_.
+#. When `_start()` takes over control, the subsequent sequence of commands depends on the command line arguments given.
+ For example, if a filename was supplied, it will proceed to execute that file. Otherwise, it will start an interactive REPL.
+#. Skipping the details about how the REPL interacts with the user,
+ let's just say the program ends up with a block of code that it wants to run.
+#. If the block of code to run is in a file, `jl_load(char *filename) <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/toplevel.c>`_
+ gets invoked to load the file and parse_ it. Each fragment of code is then passed to `eval` to execute.
+#. Each fragment of code (or AST), is handed off to `eval` to turn into results.
+#. `eval` takes each code fragment and tries to run it in `jl_toplevel_eval_flex() <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/toplevel.c>`_.
+#. `jl_toplevel_eval_flex` decides whether the code is a "toplevel" action (such as `using` or `module`), which would be invalid inside a function.
+ If so, it passes off the code to the toplevel interpretor.
+#. `jl_toplevel_eval_flex` then expands_ the code to eliminate any macros and to "lower" the AST to make it simpler to execute.
+#. `jl_toplevel_eval_flex` then uses some simple heuristics to decide whether to JIT compiler the AST or to interprete it directly.
+#. The bulk of the work to interpret code is handled by `eval in interpreter.c <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/interpreter.c>`_.
+#. If instead, the code is compiled, the bulk of the work is handled by `codegen.cpp`.
+ Whenever a Julia function is called for the first time with a given set of argument types, `type inference`_ will be run on that function.
+ This information is used by the codegen_ step to generate faster code.
+#. Eventually, the user quits the REPL, or the end of the program is reached, and the `_start()` method returns.
+#. Just before exiting, `main()` calls `jl_atexit_hook() <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/init.c>`_.
+ This calls `Base._atexit()` (which calls any functions registered to `atexit` inside Julia).
+ Then it calls `jl_gc_run_all_finalizers() <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/gc.c>`_.
+ Finally, it gracefully cleans up all libuv handles and waits for them to flush and close.
+
+.. _parse:
+
+Parsing
+-------
+
+The Julia parser is a small lisp program written in femtolisp,
+the source-code for which is distributed inside Julia in `src/flisp <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/tree/master/src/flisp>`_.
+
+The interface functions for this are primarily defined in `jlfrontend.scm <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/jlfrontend.scm>`_.
+The code in `ast.c <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/ast.c>`_ handles this handoff on the Julia side.
+
+The other relevant files at this stage are `julia-parser.scm <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/julia-parser.scm>`_,
+which handles tokenizing Julia code and turning it into an AST,
+and `julia-syntax.scm <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/julia-syntax.scm>`_,
+which handles transforming complex AST representations into simpler, "lowered" AST representations which are more suitible for analysis and execution.
+
+.. _expands:
+
+Macro Expansion
+---------------
+
+When the eval encounters a macro, it expands that AST node before attempting to evalutate the expression.
+Macro expansion involves a handoff from eval (in Julia), to the parser function `jl-macroexpand` (written in `flisp`)
+to the Julia macro itself (written in - what else - `Julia`) via `fl_invoke_julia_macro`, and back.
+
+Typically, macro expansion is invoked as a first step during a call to `expand`/`jl_expand`,
+although it can also be invoked directly by a call to `macroexpand`/`jl_macroexpand`.
+
+.. _type inference:
+
+Type Inference
+--------------
+
+Type inference is implemented in Julia by `typeinf() in inference.jl <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/base/inference.jl>`_.
+Type inference is the process of examing a Julia function and determining bounds for the types of each of its variables,
+as well as bounds on the type of the return value from the function.
+This enables may future optimizations, such as unboxing of known immutable values,
+and compile-time hoisting of various run-time operations such as computing field offsets and function pointers.
+Type inference may also include other steps such as constant propagation and inlining.
+
+.. _codegen:
+
+JIT Code Generation
+-------------------
+
+.. sidebar:: More Definitions
+
+ JIT
+ Just-In-Time Compilation
+ The process of generating native-machine code into memory right when it is needed.
+
+ LLVM
+ Low-Level Virtual Machine (a compiler)
+ The Julia JIT compiler is a program/library called libLLVM.
+ Codegen in Julia refers both to the process of taking a Julia AST and turning it into LLVM instructions,
+ and the process of LLVM optimizing that and turning it into native assembly instructions.
+
+ C++
+ The programming language that LLVM is implemented in,
+ which means that codegen is also implemented in this language.
+ The rest of Julia's library is implemented in C,
+ in part because it's smaller feature set makes it more usable as a cross-language interface layer.
+
+ box
+ This term is used to describe the process of taking a value and allocating a wrapper around the data
+ that is tracked by the garbage collector (gc) and is tagged with the object's type.
+
+ unbox
+ The reverse of boxing a value. This operation enables more efficient manipulation of data
+ when the type of that data is fully known at compile-time (through type inference).
+
+ generic function
+ A Julia function composed of multiple "methods" that are selected for dynamic dispatch based on the argument type-signature
+
+ anonymous function or "method"
+ A Julia function without a name and without type-dispatch capabilities
+
+ primitive function
+ A function implemented in C but exposed in Julia as a named function "method"
+ (albeit without generic function dispatch capabilities, similar to a anonymous function)
+
+ intrinsic function
+ A low-level operation exposed as a function in Julia.
+ These pseudo-functions implement operations on raw bits such as add and sign extend
+ that cannot be expressed directly in any other way.
+ Since the operate on bits directly, they must be compiled into a function
+ and surrounded by a call to `Core.Intrinsics.box(T, ...)` to reassign type information to the value.
+
+Codegen is the process of turning a Julia AST into native machine code.
+
+The JIT environment is initialized by an early call to `jl_init_codegen in codegen.cpp <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/codegen.cpp>`_.
+
+On demand, a Julia method is converted into a native function by the function `emit_function(jl_lambda_info_t*)`.
+(note, when using the MCJIT (in LLVM v3.4+), each function must be JIT into a new module.)
+This function recursively calls `emit_expr` until the entire function has been emitted.
+
+Much of the remaining bulk of this file is devoted to various manual optimizations of specific code patterns.
+For example, `emit_known_call` knows how to inline many of the primitive functions
+(defined in `builtins.c <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/builtins.c>`_) for various combinations of argument types.
+
+Other parts of codegen are handled by various helper files:
+
+`debuginfo.cpp <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/debuginfo.cpp>`_
+ Handles backtraces for JIT functions
+
+`ccall.cpp <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/ccall.cpp>`_
+ Handles the ccall and llvmcall FFI, along with various `abi_*.cpp` files
+
+`intrinsics.cpp <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/intrinsics.cpp>`_
+ Handles the emmission of various low-level intrinsic functions
+
+.. _sysimg:
+
+System Image
+------------
+
+.. sidebar:: Bootstrapping
+
+ The process of creating a new system image is called "bootstrapping".
+
+ The etymology of this word comes from the phrase "pulling one's self up by the bootstraps",
+ and refers to the idea of starting from a very limited set of available functions and definitions
+ and ending with the creation of a full-featured environment.
+
+The system image is a precompiled archive of a set of Julia files.
+The `sys.ji` file distributed with Julia is one such system image,
+generated by executing the file `sysimg.jl <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/base/sysimg.jl>`_,
+and serializing the resulting environment (including Types, Functions, Modules, and all other defined values)
+into a file. Therefore, it contains a frozen version of the "Main", "Core", and "Base" modules (and whatever else was in the environment at the end of bootstrapping).
+This serializer/deserializer is implemented by `jl_save_system_image/jl_restore_system_image in dump.c <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/src/dump.c>`
+
+If there is no sysimg file (:code:`jl_compileropts.image_file == NULL`),
+this also implies that `--build` was given on the command line,
+so the final result should be a new sysimg file.
+During Julia initialization, minimal "Core" and "Main" modules are created.
+Then a file named "boot.jl" is evaluated from the current directory.
+Julia then evaluates any file given as a command line argument until it reaches the end.
+Finally, it saves the resulting environment to a "sysimg" file for use as a starting point for a future Julia run.

doc/devdocs/init.rst

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 ***********************************
-Initialisation of the Julia runtime
+Initialization of the Julia runtime
 ***********************************
 
 How does the Julia runtime execute :code:`julia -e 'println("Hello World!")'` ?

doc/devdocs/julia.rst

@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
  :maxdepth: 1
 
  init
+ eval
  object
  cartesian
  meta