SOUNDS, SPELLING AND SYMBOLS

signalling systems

Homo sapiens Linguistic signalling

‘Thinking human’ (human vocal organs
COMMUNICATION allows a particularly
(Sound) wide range of sounds
Homo Loquents to be used)

‘speaking human’

same species on various

topics of mutual interest
(APPROACH)
 1.1. Phonetics
And
Phonology Phonetics
( Phonetic is the study of how
speech sounds are produced,
Two Subdisciplines In what their physical properties
Linguistics which are, and how they’re produced )
deal with sound
Phonology
( Phonology is the study of
how sounds are organized and
used in natural language)
 and acoustic and auditory phonetics focus on
the physics
of speech as it travels through the air in the
form of sound waves, and the
effect those waves have
SPEAKER
TRANSMITTED

HEARER
( Ears And Brain )
phonetics has strong
associations with
anatomy, physiology,
physics and
neurology
 1.2 Variation
phonetics is universal, while phonology
is language-specific. But things
are not quite that simple.

First, phonologists also attempt to distinguish those patterns which are

characteristic of a single language and simply reflect its history, from
others where a more universal motivation is at issue. In the case of the
absence of *fnil, or more generally the absence of word-initial [fn-]
clusters, we are dealing with a fact of modern English.
The same goes for other initial clusters, such as [kn-]: this again
was common in Old English, as in cna ￣ wan‘to know’, and
survives into
 Modern English spelling, though it is now simply pronounced [n];
again,
[kn-] is also perfectly normal in other languages, including
German, where we find Knabe‘boy’, Knie‘knee’.

However, phonological differences also exist below

the level of the language: frequently, two
people think of themselves as speakers of the same
language, but vary in their usage
(sometimes you do say tomayto, while I say tomahto).
If you say the words intemperate and incoherent to
yourself as naturally as you can, and concentrate on the first
consonant written n, you may observe that this signals two
different sounds. In intemperate, the front of your tongue
moves up behind your top front teeth for the n, and stays there
for the t; but in incoherent, you are producing
the sound usually indicated by ing in English
spelling, with your tongue raised much further back
in the mouth, since that’s where it’s going for the
However, phonological
following differences
[k] (spelled c).also exist below the level of the
language: frequently, two people think of themselves as speakers of
the
same language, but vary in their usage (sometimes you do say
tomayto,
while I say tomahto). This is not just an automatic, phonetic matter:
in
some cases a single speaker will always use one variant, but in
others,
individuals will use different variants on different occasions
Thomas Low Nichols, a nineteenth-century commentator on
American English, speculates that ‘I know of no
physiological reason why a Yankee should talk through
his nose, unless he got in the habit of shutting his mouth
to keep out the cold fogs and drizzling north-easters of
Massachusetts Bay’. There is a natural tendency for
 become more different; the same tendency has led the
various Romance languages, such as Italian, Spanish,
Romanian and French, to diverge from their common
ancestor, Latin. In addition, speakers often wish, again
subconsciously, to declare their allegiance to a
area or social group by using the language of that group;
particular
these accent differences can be powerful social markers, on
which we judge and are judged.
on the other, a speaker-by-speaker account would be too
detailed, and neglect what unifies speakers and allows them
to recognise one another as using the same system.
 Southern Standard
British English;

Scottish Standard
A Small Number of Varieties English

General American

New Zealand English

1.3 The International Phonetic

Alphabet
The International Phonetic Alphabet was proposed in
1888; it has been under constant review ever since by the
International Phonetic Association, and the latest revision
dates from 1996. It is true that a certain
 amount of learning is required to become familiar with the
conventions of the IPA and the characteristics of 6
AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH PHONOLOGY
sounds underlying the notation: but once you know that
‘tut-tut’ is [], an alveolar click, it will always be possible to
produce the relevant sound accurately; to write it down
unambiguously; and to recognise it in other languages.
However, precisely the same types of problems
encountered above also appear in connection with
the phonology of English, and some new ones
besides.

First, there is considerable ambiguity in the English

spelling system, and it works in both directions: many
sounds to one spelling, and many spellings to one sound.
There are various doggerel poems about this sort of ambiguity
 (often written by non-native speakers who have struggled with the
system): one begins by pointing out a set of eye-rhymes – ‘I gather you
already know, Of plough and cough and through and dough’. Those four
words, which we might expect to rhyme on the basis of the spelling, in
fact end in four quite different vowels, and cough has a final consonant
too. On the other hand, see, sea, people, amoeba and fiend have the
same long [i] vowel, but five different spellings.
 an IPA transcription will not tell you what a
bampot is, orglaur, or a beagie, if you don’t know.
But at least you have the comfort of knowing
how the natives pronounce it.

the IPA supplies alternative symbols in cases

where speakers will be quite sure they are
hearing the same thing; and this is not a universal
limitation of human ears, but rather varies from
language to language.
 Sound is vibration in air that
stimulate the nerves
inside the ears to create
the sensation of
hearing
There are two sounds in english :
1.Vocal
2. consonant
⦿ Vocal or vowel sound has 20 sounds symbol
devided by 2 forms :
which

a. Monophthong Sounds (single

sounds)
No Symbol Word Meaning
1 /æ/ happy bahagia
2 /e/ send mengirim
3 / ɔ: / call memanggil
4 / ɒ/ mop mengepel
5 / a: / park memarkir
6 /Λ/ Shut up diam
7 / З: / hurt menyakiti
8 /ə/ ago dahulu
9 / i: / read membaca
10 /i/ hit memukul
11 / u: / soon segera
12 /u/ put meletakan
b. Diphthong Sounds (double sounds)

No Symbol Word Meaning

1 / ei / shake berjabat
2 / ai / shine bersinar
3 / ɔi / joy kenikmatan
4 / iə / hear mendengar
5 /eə / care peduli
6 / Ʊə/ tour bepergian
7 /au / town kota
8 / oƱ / / əƱ / phone menelpon
⦿ Consonant sound has 24 sound
symbol which devide to 6
forms of sound.

a. Stops
◾ Sound produced by holding the air way through
the mouth and nose.
No symbol word meaning
1 /p/ Pil – lip Obat - Bibir
2 /b/ But – Tub Tapi – Bak mandi
3 /t/ Tea - Eat The - Makan
4 /d/ Deal - Lead Setuju - Bimbing
5 /k/ Kill - Lick Bunuh - Jilat
6 /g/ Gas - Sag Gas - Kelonggaran
b. Fricatives

sound produced by blowing air through a narrow

space formed by the lips, teeth and tongue.

No symbol word meaning

7 /f/ Feel – Leaf Merasa - Daun
8 /v/ Vile – Live Busuk - Hidup
9 /θ/ Theme - Myth Tema - Mitos
10 /ð/ This - With Ini – Dengan
11 /s/ Safe – Face Aman - Wajah
12 /z/ Zone - Nose Kawasan - Hidung
13 / ʃ/ Shall - Lash Akan - Cambukkan
14 /ʒ/ Vision Penglihatan
C. Nasals
sound produced by stopping the airflow through the mouth
with the lips, tongue, base of the tongue so that air will pass
through the nose.

No symbol word meaning

15 /m/ Meat – Team Daging -Regu
16 /n/ Name - Main Nama - Pokok
17 /ŋ/ Sing - Sink Nyanyi - Tenggelam

D. Glides
/j/ sound produced by movements of the tongue.
/w/ sound produced by wrapping the lips and then open it.
/h/ sound produced by making the air pressure from the throat.

No. Symbol Word Meaning

18 /w/ Wait Menunggu
19 /h/ Hold Memegang
20 /j/ Use Menggunakan
E. liquid
Sound produced by attaching the tip of the tongue to the
palate.

No. symbol word meaning

21. /l/ Let – Tell membiarkan - bercerita
22. /r/ Read membaca

F. Affricates
Sound produced by attaching the tongue to the palate
hardly, against with the upper teeth.

No. symbol word Meaning

23. / tʃ/ Cheat – Teach Contek - Mengajar
24. / dʒ / Jeep – Page Mobil Jip - Halaman
*the number of sounds in a word is not always the same
as the number of letter

Word Symbol Letter Sound Meaning

Fish / fi ʃ/ 4 3= CVC Ikan
Snake /sneik/ 5 4= CCVC Ular
Monkey /m Λŋki:/ 6 5= CVCCV Kera

*But there are also the number of sound in a word

the same with the number of letters

Word Symbol Letter Sound Meaning

Cat /kæt/ 3 3= CVC Kucing
Pig /pig/ 3 3= CVC babi
dog /dɒg/ 3 3= CVC anjing
THANK YOU