Radioactive isotopes can be used by doctors in hospitals.

1.
(a) A doctor measures the amount of ionising radiation in the air using a count-rate meter when
no radioactive source was present.

The count-rate meter measures the amount of ionising radiation detected each second.

Explain why the reading on the count-rate meter keeps changing.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

The doctor uses a sample of radium-226 during the treatment of a patient.

Radium-226 emits both alpha and gamma radiation.

(b) Radium (Ra) is radioactive and can decay into Radon (Rn) by alpha emission.

Complete the equation for radium-226 as it decays by alpha emission.

(2)

The sample of radium-226 is stored in a lead-lined box.

(c) Why is the sample of radium-226 stored in the lead-lined box when not in use?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(d) The doctor took the radioactive source out of the box.

Suggest two safety precautions the doctor should take.

1 _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2 _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 1 of 23

(e) The doctor measured the count rate from the sample. The count rate was 80 counts per
second.

half-life of radium-226 = 1600 years

Calculate the count rate in 6400 years.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Count rate = ___________ counts per second

(3)

(f) Objects that come into contact with ionising radiation could be irradiated or contaminated.

Describe the difference between irradiation and contamination.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 2 of 23

 (g) Radioactive tracers are radioactive isotopes that are injected into the body. The isotope is
transported around the body by the blood.

The radiation emitted by the isotope is then detected outside the body.

The table below shows some properties of four radioactive isotopes.

Radioactive isotope Half-life Type of emission

Argon-39 270 years beta

Lanthanum-117 10 milliseconds gamma

Radium-226 1600 years alpha and gamma

Technetium-99 6 hours gamma

Explain which radioactive isotope is most suitable to use as a radioactive tracer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)
(Total 17 marks)

There is a very old painting on a cave wall.

2.
The paint used contains a very small amount of the radioactive isotope carbon-14.

The age of the painting can be determined by measuring the very small amounts of radiation
emitted by the carbon-14.

(a) Give one reason why a sample of the paint must be removed from the cave and tested in a
laboratory.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 3 of 23

(b) A very small sample of paint is removed.

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of removing only a very small sample of paint.

Advantage _________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Disadvantage _______________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) When a nucleus of carbon-14 decays it emits a beta particle.

Explain why an atom of carbon-14 changes into a different element when its nucleus
decays.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

Once the activity of the paint sample is measured, the graph below can be used to
determine the age of the sample.

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(d) The sample of paint from the image is 17 000 years old.

Determine how many half-lives of carbon-14 have passed since the painting was painted
on the cave wall.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Number of half-lives = ________________________________

(3)

(e) The oldest cave painting found is at least 35 000 years old.

Explain why it is not possible to determine the age of a sample that is 35 000 years old
using the activity of carbon-14 in the sample.

Use information from the graph in part (c).

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(f) The isotope carbon-14 is made in the Earth’s atmosphere by radiation.

To produce the data in part (c), scientists assumed the percentage of carbon in the
atmosphere that is carbon-14 is constant.

Give two ways in which human activity may have affected the amount of radiation in the
atmosphere in the last 100 years.

1 _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2 _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 12 marks)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 5 of 23

 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are two processes that release energy.
3.
(a) (i) Use the correct answer from the box to complete each sentence.

Geiger counter nuclear reactor star

Nuclear fission takes place within a ____________________________ .

Nuclear fusion takes place within a ____________________________ .

(2)

(ii) State one way in which the process of nuclear fusion differs from the process of
nuclear fission.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) The following nuclear equation represents the fission of uranium-235 (U-235).

Chemical symbols:

Ba - barium

Kr - krypton

(i) Use the information in the equation to describe the process of nuclear fission.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(4)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 6 of 23

 (ii) An isotope of barium is Ba-139.
Ba-139 decays by beta decay to lanthanum-139 (La-139).

Complete the nuclear equation that represents the decay of Ba-139 to La-139.

(3)
(Total 10 marks)

(a) The graph shows how the count rate from a sample containing the radioactive substance
4. cobalt-60 changes with time.

(i) What is the range of the count rate shown on the graph?

From __________ counts per second to __________ counts per second.

(1)

(ii) How many years does it take for the count rate to fall from 200 counts per second to
100 counts per second?

Time = _________________________ years

(1)

(iii) What is the half-life of cobalt-60?

Half-life = _________________________ years

(1)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 7 of 23

(b) The gamma radiation emitted from a source of cobalt-60 can be used to kill the bacteria on
fresh, cooked and frozen foods. Killing the bacteria reduces the risk of food poisoning.

The diagram shows how a conveyor belt can be used to move food past a cobalt-60
source.

(i) Which one of the following gives a way of increasing the amount of gamma radiation
the food receives?

Put a tick ( ) in the box next to your answer.

Increase the temperature of the cobalt-60 source.

Make the conveyor belt move more slowly.

Move the cobalt-60 source away from the conveyor belt.

(1)

(ii) To protect people from the harmful effects of the gamma radiation, the cobalt-60
source has thick metal shielding.

Which one of the following metals should be used?

Draw a ring around your answer.

aluminium copper lead

(1)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 8 of 23

 (c) A scientist has compared the vitamin content of food exposed to gamma radiation with food
that has not been exposed.

The table gives the data the scientist obtained when she tested 1 kg of cooked chicken.

Food not exposed Food exposed to

to gamma radiation gamma radiation
Vitamin
Mass in milligrams Mass in milligrams

B6 1.22 1.35

B12 21.00 28.00

E 3.30 2.15

Niacin 58.00 55.50

Riboflavin 2.10 2.25

Considering only this data, which one of the following is a correct conclusion?

Put a tick ( ) in the box next to your answer.

Vitamin content is not affected by gamma radiation.

Gamma radiation completely destroys some types of vitamin.

Exposure increased the content of some types of vitamin.

(1)
(Total 6 marks)

The table gives information about the three types of particle that make up an atom.
5.
Particle Relative mass Relative charge

Proton +1

Neutron 1

Electron very small –1

(a) Complete the table by adding the two missing values.

(2)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 9 of 23

 (b) Use the information in the table to explain why an atom has no overall electrical charge.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) Uranium has two natural isotopes, uranium-235 and uranium-238.

Uranium-235 is used as a fuel inside a nuclear reactor.
Inside the reactor, atoms of uranium-235 are split and energy is released.

(i) How is the structure of an atom of uranium-235 different from the structure of an atom
of uranium-238?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) The nucleus of a uranium-235 atom must absorb a particle before the atom is able to
split.

What type of particle is absorbed?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(iii) The nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts in a reactor.

What name is given to this process?

______________________________________________________________
(1)
(Total 7 marks)

Different radioactive isotopes have different values of half-life.

6.
(a) What is meant by the ‘half-life’ of a radioactive isotope?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 10 of 23

(b) Figure 1 shows how the count rate from a sample of a radioactive isotope varies with time.

Figure 1

Time in days

Use information from Figure 1 to calculate the half-life of the radioactive isotope.

Show clearly on Figure 1 how you obtain your answer.

Half-life = ___________________ days

(2)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 11 of 23

(c) The table below shows data for some radioactive isotopes that are used in schools.

Radioactive Type of radiation Half-life in

isotope emitted years

Americium-241 Alpha and gamma 460

Cobalt-60 Gamma 5

Radium-226 Alpha, beta and gamma 1600

Strontium-90 Beta 28

Thorium-232 Alpha and beta 1.4 x 1010

(i) State which radioactive isotope in the table above emits only radiation that is not
deflected by a magnetic field.

Give a reason for your choice.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 12 of 23

(ii) Figure 2 shows a radioactive isotope being used to monitor the thickness of paper
during production.

Figure 2

State which radioactive isotope in the table should be used to monitor the thickness
of the paper.

Explain your choice.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)

All the radioactive isotopes in the table have practical uses.

State which source in the table would need replacing most often.

Explain your choice.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 13 of 23

(iii) When the radioactive isotopes are not in use, they are stored in lead-lined wooden
boxes.

The boxes reduce the level of radiation that reaches the surroundings.

Figure 3 shows two of these boxes.

Figure 3

© David McKean

State one source from the table which emits radiation that could penetrate the box.

Explain your answer.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 14 marks)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 14 of 23

 Bananas contain a radioactive isotope of potassium (K).
7.
(a) There are different isotopes of the element potassium.

What is meant by isotopes of an element?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) An isotope of potassium decays into argon (Ar) by emitting a beta particle (β).

Compare the numbers of protons and neutrons in the argon nucleus to those in the
potassium nucleus.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) A student investigated the radiation emitted by a banana.

The student used the following method:

• Measure the count in one minute without the banana.

• Measure the count in one minute with the banana present.
• Repeat the measurements several times.

The table shows the student’s results.

Count in one minute without Count in one minute with

the banana the banana
21 23
20 21
21 21
18 22
19 18
20 24

St Christopher's Senior School Page 15 of 23

 Evaluate whether it is safe to eat a banana.

Use information from the table. Include a calculation in your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(d) Explain one improvement to the student’s method.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)
(Total 11 marks)

St Christopher's Senior School Page 16 of 23

Mark schemes
(a) meter detects background radiation
1. 1

which is not constant

dependent on the 1st mp
1

(b) 222, 4
1

86, 2
1

(c) reduce the amount of gamma radiation leaving the box

1

(d) any two from:

• wear eye protection
allow wear goggles
• wear gloves
• keep at arm’s length
• use tongs to handle source
• point away from doctor
• put signs on the door
• keep source out of box for as little time as possible
• wear a lead-lined vest.
2

(e)
= 4 half lives
1

× 80

allow 80 − 40 − 20 − 10 − 5
1

5 (counts per second)

1

(f) irradiation is when an object is exposed to ionising radiation

1

contamination is when an object has unwanted radioactive material deposited on it

1

contaminated objects become radioactive but irradiated objects do not

1

St Christopher's Senior School Page 17 of 23

 (g) Level 2: Relevant points (reasons/causes) are identified, given in detail and logically
linked to form a clear account.
3-4

Level 1: Points are identified and stated simply, but their relevance is not clear and
there is no attempt at logical linking.
1-2

No relevant content
0

Indicative content:
• Technetium-99 has a shorter half-life so does not stay in body long enough to harm it
• Technetium-99 has a long enough half-life to be transported around the body
• Technetium-99 does not emit alpha which is highly ionising
• Technetium-99 emits gamma radiation which can penetrate the body and be detected
outside the body
• Argon-39 has a half-life that is too long and therefore would stay in the body too long
and cause harm to it
• Lanthanum-117 has a half-life that is too short and so there would not be enough
time for it to be transported around the body
• Radium-226 has a half-life that is too long and therefore would stay in the body too
long and cause harm to it
• Radium-226 emits alpha radiation which is highly ionising
• Radium-226 emits alpha radiation so is most dangerous when ingested
• Technetium-99 is the most suitable tracer.

To score in level 2 both half-life and type of emission need to be discussed.

[17]

(a) radiation (from the rocks in the cave) would affect the results
2. 1

(b) Advantage
less damage is done to the painting
1

Disadvantage
the amount of radiation emitted will be small so it is more difficult to measure
1

(c) during beta decay a neutron changes into a proton

1

this increases / changes the number of protons in the nucleus (so a new element is
formed)
allow atomic number increases / changes
1

St Christopher's Senior School Page 18 of 23

 (d) 240 and 30 nBq read from the graph
1

240 ⟶ 120
120 ⟶ 60
60 ⟶ 30
1

3 half-lives
1

OR
fraction remaining =
3.0 × 10–8 / 2.4 × 10–7 (1)

fraction remaining =
1/8 = (1/2)3 (1)

3 half-lives (1)
an answer of 3 scores 3 marks

(e) at 35 000 the activity of the sample is almost zero

allow change in activity is very small
allow very low
do not accept activity is zero
1

data gathered would be too similar to background

allow too low to measure
1

(f) nuclear power stations

allow
nuclear weapons testing
nuclear accidents
1

medical X-rays
allow other medical uses
1
[12]

(a) (i) nuclear reactor

3. 1

star
1

(ii) nuclei are joined (not split)

accept converse in reference to nuclear fission
do not accept atoms are joined
1

St Christopher's Senior School Page 19 of 23

 (b) (i) any four from:

• neutron
• (neutron) absorbed by U (nucleus)
ignore atom
do not accept reacts
do not accept added to
• forms a larger nucleus
• (this larger nucleus is) unstable
• (larger nucleus) splits into two (smaller) nuclei / into Ba and Kr
• releasing three neutrons and energy
accept fast-moving for energy
4

(ii) 56 (Ba)
1

57 (La)
if proton number of Ba is incorrect allow 1 mark if that of La is 1
greater
1

accept e for β

scores 3 marks
1
[10]

(a) (i) 200 to 50

4.
accept either order
1

(ii) 5.3
accept values between 5.2 and 5.4 inclusive
1

(iii) 5.3
accept values between 5.2 and 5.4 inclusive
or
their (a)(ii)
1

(b) (i) Make the conveyor belt move more slowly

1

(ii) lead
1

(c) Exposure increased the content of some types of vitamin.

1
[6]

St Christopher's Senior School Page 20 of 23

 (a)
5.

Particle Relative Relative

Mass charge

Proton 1

Neutron 0

accept one, accept +1

do not accept –1
1

accept zero
do not accept no charge/ nothing/neutral unless given with 0
1

(b) equal numbers/amounts of protons and electrons

1

protons and electrons have equal but opposite charge

accept protons charge +1 and electron charge –1
accept (charge) on proton
cancels/balances (charge) on electron
accept positive (charges) cancel out the negative(charges)
neutrons have no charge is neutral
do not accept total charge of protons, electrons (and neutrons) is 0
unless qualified
1

(c) (i) (3) fewer neutrons

accept lower/ smaller mass number
do not accept different numbers of neutrons
any mention of fewer/more protons/electrons negates mark
accept answers in terms of U-238 providing U-238 is specifically
stated i.e. U-238 has (3) more neutrons
1

(ii) neutron
1

(iii) (nuclear) fission

accept fision
do not accept any spelling that may be taken as fusion
1
[7]

St Christopher's Senior School Page 21 of 23

 (a) (average) time taken for the amount / number of nuclei / atoms (of the isotope in a sample)
6. to halve
or
time taken for the count rate (from a sample containing the isotope) to fall to half
accept (radio)activity for count rate
1

(b) 60 ±3 (days)
1

indication on graph how value was obtained

1

(c) (i) cobalt(-60)

1

gamma not deflected by a magnetic field

or
gamma have no charge
dependent on first marking point
accept (only) emits gamma
gamma has no mass is insufficient
do not accept any reference to half-life
1

(ii) strontium(-90)
1

any two from:

• only has beta

• alpha would be absorbed
• gamma unaffected
• beta penetration / absorption depends on thickness of paper
if thorium(-232) or radium(-226) given, max 2 marks can be
awarded
2

(iii) cobalt(-60)
1

shortest half-life
accept half-life is 5 years
dependent on first marking point
1

so activity / count rate will decrease quickest

1

(iv) americium(-241) / cobalt(-60) / radium(-226)

1

gamma emitter
1

St Christopher's Senior School Page 22 of 23

 (only gamma) can penetrate lead (of this box)
do not allow lead fully absorbs gamma
1
[14]

(a) atoms with same number of protons

7.
allow same atomic/proton number
1

but different numbers of neutrons

allow different mass number
ignore reference to electrons
1

(b) argon has one more proton

allow potassium has one fewer protons (than argon)
1

potassium has one more neutron

allow argon has one fewer neutrons (than potassium)
1

(c) yes, because mean count from banana is only slightly above background
allow total count is greater
1

or

no, because mean count from banana is above background

allow total count is greater

correct numerical comparison

1

therefore small increase in hazard

allow comparison of mean values
1

(d) take the measurements for longer than one minute

allow gather data from different bananas
1

to increase the total count

allow collect more data
1

to increase the difference between the background count and the count from the
banana
1

to determine a better estimate of the count above background due to the banana
1
[11]

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