Research Methodology

Module 2

Business Research Design: Meaning, types and significance of research design, errors affecting research
design.

Exploratory Research: Meaning, purpose, methods, Literature search, experience survey, focus groups
and comprehensive case methods.

Conclusive Research Design: Descriptive Research, Meaning, Types, Cross sectional studies and
longitudinal studies.

Experimental Research Design: Meaning and classification of experimental designs, formal and informal,
Pre experimental design, True experimental design, Quasi-experimental design, Statistical experimental
design.

Business Research Design:

Meaning- A research is a strategy for answering your research questions. It defines your overall
approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design.

It is a conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It is a blueprint for collection,

measurement and analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

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(ix) How will the data be analyzed?

(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Research Concepts:

1. Variables:
 Variables are characters
 They can take up values
 They take up quantitative values
 Examples: Weight, height, age etc

Types of variables (cause-effect relationship):

a. Dependent Variable (effect)- Result of some force or is influenced by another variable

factor.
b. Independent Variable (cause)- the force itself that causes change in another variable.

Example: Buying a product (online) by seeing advertisement

Types of qualitative variables:

A. Continuous variables:
a. Represents measurable amount
b. Can be in decimals
B. Non-continuous/discrete variables:
a. Counts/represents countable numbers
b. They are integers
C. Extraneous variables:
Variables that are not taken into consideration for the study <or> variable that is not
investigated but still influence the dependent variable is extraneous variables.
D. Confounded variables:
It is a type of extraneous variable, that not only affects the dependent variable but also is
relative to the independent variable.

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E. Constructs: When measuring behavioral outcomes in the social sciences, the personal
characteristics to be assessed is called a construct. It is a proposed attribute of a person that
cannot be measured directly.
F. Concept: Arrives from generalization of particular facts. It is agreeable by many people.
G. Hypothesis: A supposition or explanation that is provisionally accepted in order to interpret
certain events or phenomena, and to provide guidance for further investigation. It can be
proven right or wrong.
H. Proposition: It is similar to hypothesis. It’s main purpose is to suggest a link between two
concepts in a situation where the link cannot be verified by experiment. It heavily relies on prior
research and evidence.
I. Control: Refers to restrain experimental conditions. Or control is the term used when we design
the study minimizing the effect of extraneous variables.
J. Control Group: During hypothesis testing, when the group is exposed to usual conditions, then it
is called control group.
K. Experimental Group: During hypothesis testing, when group is exposed to special conditions,
then it is called experimental group.
L. Treatments: Different conditions under which the experimental groups are put are called
treatments.

Exploratory Research Design:

 Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly
defined.
 It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing research problem, but will not
provide conclusive results.
 For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium
to identify issues, that can be the focus for future research. An important aspect here is that the
researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or
insight.
 Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage.
 It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to
answer questions like what, why and how.

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(Example: A juice bar owner thinks that increasing the variety of juices in the shop will fetch him more
customers. However, he is not sure of it and therefore needs more information. The owner intends to
conduct an exploratory research to find out more)

Characteristics of Exploratory Research:

1. They are unstructured

2. Usually low cost, interactive and open ended
3. Understand “what is the problem?”, “purpose of the study”
4. There is no prior research done or the existing ones do not answer the problem precisely
enough.
5. It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.
6. The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he is
doing.
7. There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and
scattered
8. The research needs to have importance or value
9. This research produces qualitative data, however in some cases, quantitative data can get
generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments.

Types and methodologies of Exploratory Research:

There are two ways in which research can be conducted namely primary and secondary.. Under these
two types, there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data gathered from the
research can be qualitative or quantitative. Some of the most widely used research designs include the
following:

1. Primary Research Methods-

 Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject
 It can be an individual as well as a group
 Primary research is specifically carried out to explore a certain problem which requires
an in-depth study

Types- Survey/polls, Interviews, Focus Groups, Observations

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A. Survey/polls:
a. Used to gather information from a predefined group of respondents
b. It is one of the most important quantitative methods
c. Surveys can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc.
d. With advancement in technology, online surveys are trending
e. Shorter the length of surveys, higher the response rate

Example: a survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions about the size of
mobile phones when they purchase one etc.

B. In depth Interviews:
a. Even though there are public sources that can give you information, interviews will
give an insight and in-depth information on the subject being studied
b. It is a qualitative research method
c. It is carried out in person or on telephone which have open ended questions to get
meaningful information about the topic

Example: An interview with an employee in an organization can give you insight about the degree of
satisfaction on his job etc

C. Focus groups:
a. Focus group is another widely used exploratory research method.
b. A group of people are chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the topic
that is being studied.
c. It is important to choose individuals in a focus group with common background and
have comparable experiences.

Example: customer satisfaction with the i-phone users in the market etc

D. Observations:
a) It can be qualitative or quantitative in nature
b) It is carried out to observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction to
certain parameters.
c) No direct interaction with the subject is done

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Example: changing packaging of a product and observing consumers’ reaction to the same etc

2. Secondary Research Methods-

 Gathering information from previously published primary research. You source
information from case studies, magazines, newspapers, books etc
A. Online Research:
a. This is one of the fastest ways to collection information on any topic.
b. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and authenticity
of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the information from.
Example: Searching for the famous food joint to eat chats in Bangalore
B. Literature Search:
a. Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for discovering a
hypothesis.
b. There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries, sources, or even
commercial databases.
c. Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from
government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports,
published statistics from research organizations and so on.
d. A few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these sources. Government
agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a nominal cost.
Also, research from educational institutions is generally overlooked, but in fact
educational institutions carry out more researches than any other entities.

e. Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like political

agendas, demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc.

Example: A company has low sales, we can explore available statistics and market literature if the
problem is related to the organization.

C. Case study:
a. Case study research can help a researcher with finding more information through
carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone through a similar problem.

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b. The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to all
the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very commonly used
by business organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.

Example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for performing knee surgeries. A
lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case to understand and benchmark the method in
which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their success rate.

Advantages Disadvantages
Flexible to changes It can point the problem but not give a conclusion
Usually low cost They provide qualitative data, interpretation can
be biased
Easy understand early stage of research Involves a smaller sample
Helps lay a foundation for research Can get old and not updated data at times

Conclusive Research Design:

 To obtain information that can be used to reach conclusions or make decisions.

 Data collected in this research design is quantitative
 Highly structured techniques, such as surveys with closed-ended questions
 The ideas obtained can be validated and quantifies using conclusive research design

Characteristics:

 It is more formal and structured than exploratory research

 Conclusive results
 Not flexible and is versatile
 Used when information is clearly defined
 Reliable, specific and decisive information/data

Types of conclusive research design:

a. Descriptive Research

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i. Cross-sectional Research
ii. Longitudinal Research

Descriptive Research: descriptive research is carried out when the researcher wants to describe specific
character or behavior as it occurs in the environment. Here, no changes made in the environment (i.e. it
is not manipulated). It is used to collect information regarding the present status of the phenomena to
describe “what exists?” than “why?”

This method particularly focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment without focusing
on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs.

Characteristics of descriptive research:

 They’re quantitative in nature. Attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical

analysis of the population sample.
 Uncontrolled variables- none of the variables are influenced in any way. Researcher can only
study the natural behavior and cannot manipulate.
 It is a basis for further study or research.
 Less expensive

Cross-sectional Research:

 A cross sectional research can be conducted with the same variables at a point in time
 Or in other words, a cross-sectional study is a type of research design where you collect data
from many different individuals at a single point of time.
 Here, we observe variable without influencing them
 It is a cheap and easy way to gather initial data.
 We use cross-sectional study when we want to examine the prevalence of some outcome at a
certain moment in time.
 Different group of sample or one group of sample is collected data at one point in time.
 Simultaneous selection, assignment, and assessment of subjects (at the same time)

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Example: There is a free lunch program in Government schools for families and children whose current
income level is 1.5 lakhs pa. Therefore to know the current number of low-income families, a cross-
sectional study is conducted to fetch data.

Longitudinal Research:

 A type of research design involving a fixed sample of population elements that is measured
repeatedly at different time periods to detect any changes that might occur over a period of
time.
 The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of pictures which, when viewed
together, portray a vivid illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking place over
time.
 There is no fixed amount of time required for a longitudinal study, they can last for a few weeks,
months to years.
 Fixed sample
 More expensive
 Time consuming

Experimental/Causal Research:

Experimental/causal Research is also known cause and effect research. It identifies the extent and
nature of cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables. It can help increase your
understanding of a given topic, and understand how or why a particular phenomenon is occurring and

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predict future occurrences. It also investigates patterns and trends in existing data that haven’t been
previously investigated.

 It works well with relatively well defined and limited independent variables that can either be
manipulated or controlled.
 It can be conducted in laboratory or field settings

Basic principles of Experimental Designs:

 The principle of replication: According to the principle of Replication, the experiment should be
repeated more than once. Therefore each treatment is applied in many experimental units
instead of one. This increases statistical accuracy. Example: two types of rice is sown into a field
by dividing the field into two halves. Applying replication here, we can divide the land into
multiple smaller patches and use to sow the same two types of rice by distributing it.
 The principle of Randomization: This provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors
by randomization or in other words, it is used to control the effect of the extraneous variables.
The units are assigned randomly so that the effect caused by the extraneous variable can be
under our control. Example: two types of rice in one field of land. The soil fertility may be
different in every part of the land. Therefore the two types of crops are put in different areas
based on randomization to protect against the difference in fertility level of soil (extraneous
variable).
 The principle of Local Control: here, the extraneous variable, also known as the source of
variability is made to vary deliberately as large as possible. It is done to make sure that the
variability can be measured. Example: introducing fertilizers to the entire field of land.

Experimental design types:

a. Pre-experimental design
i. One shot case study
ii. One group pre test- post test
iii. Static group
b. True experimental design
i. Pre test- post test control group

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ii. Post test only control group

c. Quasi-experimental design
i. Time series
ii. Multiple time series
d. Statistical
i. Latin Square
ii. Factorial

Pre experimental Designs:

 Simplest form of experimental designs

 Have little to no control over extraneous variables
 Does not opt for random assignment
i. One shot case study:
 Here, test units are exposed to a treatment
 These treatments are not assigned randomly and there is only one group and one
treatment
 There is no control group
 There is no pre-test, therefore, pre-test observation is not recorded, only post
treatment, the observation is recorded
 A single measurement of dependent variable is taken O1

Standard notation for One shot case study: X  O1

Example: testing new to the market products

ii. One Group Pre-test-post-test:

 In this research design, the test unit is measured twice

 Once before the test and once after the test
 There is no control group

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Standard notation for One group pre-test-post-test:

Example: To test changes in the marketing plan for established products. With respect to new
packaging, understanding the pros and cons of old packaging, changing the packaging and
understanding the pros and cons of new packaging

iii. Static Group Design:

 There is a control group and also an experimental group

 The experimental group is exposed to treatment while the control group is not
 Test units are not randomly assigned
 Measurement for both the groups are drawn after the treatment is administered to
experimental group
 The effect of the treatment is measured by O1 - O2
Standard notation for Static Group Design:

Example: The team lead decides one group of employees to get the soft skills training while the other
group remains as a control group and is not exposed to any program. He then compares both the groups
and finds out the treatment group has evolved in their soft skills more than the control group.

True Experimental Design:

In true experimental design, the researcher assigns the test units to treatments at random

i. Post-test only control group design:

 Test units are randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups
 The experimental group is exposed to the treatment and then both the experimental
and control groups are measured

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 Only one measurement is taken

 The effect of the treatment is calculated using O1 – O2

ii. Pre-test-post-test control group design:

 Unit tests are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups

 A pre-test measure is taken from both groups
 Treatment is administered to experimental group

Quasi-Experimental:

i. Time Series:
 There is no randomization of the test units to the treatments
 The timing as well as the units which are put under treatment are not under researcher’s
control
 Here sample is taken but measurement of the treatment on the dependent variable is taken
on multiple occasions. Meaning, instead of one pre-test, the test is repeated three or four
times before the treatment is administered. This generates data on the trends of behavior.
 Similarly after the treatment, instead of one time post-test, the post-test is administered
several times at intervals. This gives trends in change of behavior.
 Result interpretation is easier because it takes multiple readings.

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A manufacturing company might measure its workers’ productivity each week for a year, ECG, Weather
data.

O 1 O 2 O3 O 4 X O5 O 6 O 7 O 8

ii. Multiple Time Series:

 Researcher adds a control group to the research design. Control group is not randomly assigned.
 It is easier to compare the treatment effects due to the addition of control group
 Here the researcher is going to observe one or two groups at many point of time before and
after a treatment, and not just at one time.
 We can see the changes and compare the pattern of change over time from before to following
a treatment.

EG: O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

CG: O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8

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