Hydrogen infrastructure –

the pillar of energy transition

The practical conversion of long-distance
gas networks to hydrogen operation

siemens-energy.com
Page

03 Executive Summary
04 Foreword
05 1. Hydrogen: overview
1.1. Green hydrogen as the energy source of the future

07 2. Generation
08 3. Transmission
3.1. Intrinsic value of the existing gas infrastructure
3.2. Pipeline capacity in the transition to hydrogen
3.3. Suitability of the pipelines for hydrogen operation
3.4. Compression requirements for transport

14 4. Storage
4.1. Existing gas storage capacities
4.2. H2 readiness of German gas storage facilities

16 5. Hydrogen industry in operation

5.1. System start-up and first model projects
5.2. Integration into the German and international gas market

23 6 Economics
6.1. Investment and production costs
6.2. Legal framework

24 7. Summary / outlook

Authors
Peter Adam
Siemens Energy, Germany
Frank Heunemann
Nowega GmbH, Germany
Christoph von dem Bussche
Gascade Gastransport GmbH, Germany
Stefan Engelshove
Siemens Energy, Germany
Thomas Thiemann
Siemens Energy, Germany

2
“In developing and deploying a clean hydrogen
value chain, Europe will become a global front-
runner and retain its leadership in clean tech”
Frans Timmermans, First Vice President of the European Commission, 08.07.20201)

Executive Summary
Within the framework of energy sector integration and • The technologies for converting the gas infrastructure to
together with the expansion of the electricity grids, a hydrogen operation are already largely available; the
needs-based hydrogen infrastructure is a central building large-scale application at a high level of technical stan-
block for the reliable supply to industrial, public and private dardization will foreseeably lead to economically sensible
customers of CO2-free energy: solutions.

• Hydrogen can be produced by electrolysis with energy • To establish a hydrogen industry in line with the market,
from renewable sources in large quantities and com- uniform and appropriate framework conditions are
pletely CO2-free, stored, transported and made available needed to ensure the competitiveness of climate-neutral
via gas networks, and integrated into the international hydrogen on the energy market. In parallel, the regulatory
gas markets. framework for the network must be adapted to enable
hydrogen transport using the publicly-accessible gas
• Pure hydrogen, as an energy source in pipelines, has an network.
almost comparable transport energy density as natural
gas. It can therefore provide the market with the re- • Various regional model projects for the establishment of
quired capacities for climate-neutral energy. hydrogen economies with industrial customers are
already being planned. An expansion of these model
• The highly integrated German and European natural gas projects can form the basis for a Germany and Europe-
transmission networks represent an economically advan- wide hydrogen industry by 2030.
tageous way to distribute large quantities of energy as
required. The pipeline networks are available, socially
accepted, and can be gradually converted to hydrogen
operation with an investment of an estimated 10-15% of
the cost of new construction (calculations are based on
general obersations and consumptions).

• The generation of hydrogen based on renewable energy

sources is subject to strong fluctuations. Concrete model
calculations show that the needs-based supply of
customers via existing gas storage – temporarily – can
be supplemented with ‘blue’ hydrogen. To increase the
proportion of green hydrogen, a consequent expansion
of renewable electricity generation is required.

3
Foreword

Energy transition presents all nations with major economic Countries like Germany also have extremely well-developed
and logistical challenges. natural gas transmission networks that are well integrated
with the international market. As current studies and prac-
A central question when converting to renewable energy tice cases show, the existing networks can be converted to
sources is: how can the energy be effectively stored and hydrogen operation step by step and in a needs-oriented
made available? As regenerative energy production is way with comparatively little effort – notably without the
subject to strong natural fluctuations, powerful and needs- complex procedural steps of new construction.
based storage and transport solutions are required to
compensate for the inevitable energy-market differences. Based on real practice cases and from the perspective of
In contrast to the existing gas and electricity infrastructure, technology companies and network operators, this paper
new construction of the necessary infrastructure is subject examines what a German and European hydrogen infra-
to elaborate and complex planning and approval procedures. structure could look like in practice based on the existing
natural gas systems, what opportunities it offers, and what
The establishment of a hydrogen industry creates compara- challenges must be overcome for a successful changeover.
tively cheap solutions to the above-mentioned challenges
that can be implemented in the short term. Numerous
countries, including those in the EU, have already identified
hydrogen as the energy source of the future – in addition
to expanding power grids – to promote industrial decar-
bonization, enable sector integration, and achieve climate
goals.

Hydrogen as a source of energy per se is a storage medium.

Like natural gas, it can be stored in large underground
storage facilities, transported to the end-user by pipeline,
and even achieves a similarly high transport energy density
due to its material properties.

Thorbjoern Fors Frank Heunemann Christoph von dem Bussche

Executive Vice President Managing Director Managing Director
Industrial Applications, Nowega GmbH Gascade Gastransport GmbH
Siemens Energy

4
 Veribus dolorpro | Rubrik, Artikel

1. Hydrogen: Overview

Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe

and, with molecular weight 2 (0.09 kg/Nm3), the lightest of Hydrogen:
all gases. Its melting point is −259.14 °C. On earth, it occurs
in a bonded form, mostly as water (H2O). Hydrogen is not categorized according to
toxic, not corrosive, not self-igniting, and burns to water the CO2 balance
vapor without the emission of CO2.

Hydrogen has a low energy density (3 kWh/Nm3) due to its In public discussion, types of hydrogen are often simply
extremely low weight (compared to methane: 10 kWh/Nm3), given ‘colors’ that refer to the CO2 balance of their
but its calorific value is significantly higher at around production. In the context of the present analysis,
33 kWh/kg (methane: 14 kWh/kg). Compression allows the according to this ‘color theory’ (in addition to other
energy density to be increased to a level comparable to that forms of production), ‘green’, ‘gray’ and ‘blue’ hydrogen
of natural gas2). As a gas, hydrogen can be transported in are particularly relevant:
large quantities in pipelines and stored in gas storage
facilities. As an energy source, hydrogen can be used in • Green Hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis:
industry and by end users in fuel cells for mobility and water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by an electric
heating applications or it can be used to generate electricity current and with the help of an electrolyte. If the
in turbines. At the same time, it serves as a raw material electricity required for electrolysis comes exclusively
and resource for numerous industrial applications. from renewable, CO2-free sources, the entire pro­
duction process is completely CO2-free.
Hydrogen can be generated in different ways – from ‘gray’,
CO2-intensively obtained, via CO2-neutral ‘blue’, to CO2-free • Blue Hydrogen is generated CO2-neutral from fossil
‘green’ hydrogen from renewable energy sources. fuels. The CO2 is separated and stored or reused
(Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) or Carbon
Capture Usage (CCU)).

• Gray Hydrogen is obtained from fossil fuels. For

example, natural gas is converted under heat into
hydrogen and CO2 (‘steam reforming’). Approximately
nine tons of CO2 are generated to produce one ton of
hydrogen from methane.

5
1.1 Green hydrogen as the energy source of the future Approximately 95% of the hydrogen is obtained ‘gray’ and
‘blue’ by steam reforming from methane, oil, or coal; for a
With its completely CO2-free production, ‘green’ hydrogen ton of hydrogen, an average of about nine tons of CO2 are
offers the potential for permanent decarbonization of the generated5). So far, however, energy from renewable
energy landscape and compliance with climate goals. sources is largely unused.
This potential is still largely undeveloped today:
To make renewable energies universally usable with the
Around 75 million tons of hydrogen are generated annually help of green hydrogen, in addition to sufficient capacity
worldwide3). Around 95% of the production takes place in for green electricity and hydrogen generation, a storage
refineries, in fertilizer production, and in petrochemical and transport network infrastructure is required that can
plants as a raw material for further processing in various effectively and reliably serve the needs of business and
branches of industry4). Apart from specialized industries, consumers.
however, hydrogen is so far unused on a larger scale as an
energy source.

Storage

Compressor Pipeline

Electrolyser

Figure 1: Core elements generation – compression – transmission/storage

6
2. Generation

The industrial production of green hydrogen takes place by

means of water electrolysis using exclusively regenerative
energy. In large-scale production, the usual demineralized
water is split by an electrical current into oxygen and
hydrogen in an electrolyzer. When using desalinated sea
water, an additional approx 5 MWh of energy per ton of
hydrogen is required for the electrolysis. In contrast to the
conventional method of steam reforming, e.g. from natural
gas (‘gray’ or ‘blue’), this type of production is completely
CO2-free. Around 55 MWh of electrical energy is required
to generate one ton of hydrogen.

Commercially available water electrolysis systems for indus-

trial use today usually utilize alkaline electrolysis with a
potassium hydroxide electrolyte, or a ‘Proton Exchange
Membrane’ (PEM) electrolysis with a proton-permeable
polymer membrane.

Alkaline water electrolysis is a technology that has been Figure 2:

established on the market for many years and does not Modern PEM electrolyzer for large- scale applications -
require the use of precious metals. stock/Siemens Energy Silyzer 300

The still relatively new PEM electrolysis, on the other hand, Figure 2 shows an example of a modern PEM electrolyzer
achieves a significantly higher power density and extremely for large-scale applications with a power consumption of
high power versatility. It is therefore also suitable for grid 17.5 MW and a production of approx. 335 kg hydrogen
stabilization and for fluctuating electricity feed-in from per hour. The system efficiency (depending on the mode
wind power and photovoltaic systems. As this technology of operation) is approx. 75,5%. Oxygen and low-tempera-
was first scaled into the megawatt range in recent years, ture heat are generated as by-products, which can also
significant cost reductions can still be expected for large- be used via connected applications.
scale applications.

7
3. Transmission

Regardless of how the hydrogen is generated, if it is not 3.2. Pipeline capacity when switching to hydrogen
produced directly at the point of use it must be transported.
There are various technical processes for this: for example Contrary to popular belief, the transport energy density of
as a gas in high-pressure containers, as liquefied gas in hydrogen is only slightly lower than that of natural gas.
thermally-insulated containers, further processed into Therefore, the switch from natural gas to hydrogen has
methanol or ammonia in liquid form, or chemically little impact on the capacity of a pipeline to transport
dissolved in a carrier medium using the so-called ‘Liquid energy.
Organic Hydrogen Carrier’ (‘LOHC’)6).
The upper calorific value of natural gas at around 11 kWh/
Transport via pipelines is particularly economical. Due to Nm3 is about three times higher than that of hydrogen at
the high calorific value and the compressibility of the 3.5 kWh/ Nm3, so that at the same pressure, around three
hydrogen, an extraordinarily high energy density can be times the volume of hydrogen is required to keep the
achieved. In comparison to a 380 kV double system over- energy content constant.
head line with 1.5 GW, a gas line (PN 80, DN 1000) can
transmit up to ten times the power in natural gas and When comparing the energy flow of two gases through a
hydrogen operation – at around a fourteenth of the specific pipeline, it is not only the volume that is important, but
costs7). above all the parameters of density, flow velocity, and
pressure. As hydrogen has a density nine times lower and
Pipeline systems at a length of several hundred kilometers three times the flow rate of natural gas, almost three times
each are already in use in pure hydrogen operation world- the volume of hydrogen can be transported in the pipeline
wide. at the same pressure, and during the same time. The
energy density is only slightly reduced, as the following
3.1. Intrinsic value of the existing gas infrastructure model calculation shows.

The German gas network is highly developed with approx.

40,000 km of transmission lines and more than 470,000 km
of distribution networks8). Germany also has the largest gas
storage facilities in the EU with a working gas volume of
approx. 24.3 billion m³. As an important transit country for
gas supply, Germany is also extremely well connected to
the European gas market. The German gas infrastructure is
therefore predestined as a central building block for sector
integration and the maintenance of security of supply
within the framework of an ecologically sustainable power-
to-gas strategy.

The existing pipeline routes represent an extremely valu-

able element of the transmission system and offer the
opportunity to build a climate-neutral hydrogen industry in
a manageable time and with little investment.
As measuring devices, compressors and fittings can be
exchanged relatively easily, replacing or building new
pipelines would be very expensive. In addition to the tech-
nical costs, the necessary spatial planning and planning
approval procedures are extremely time- and cost-intensive.
In the best-case scenario, the process takes five to seven
years from initial planning to commissioning. The gas
network’s pipeline routes, including their rights of way and
use, are however available and accepted by the population.

8
Comparison of energy flow and pipeline capacity:
natural gas (methane) and hydrogen

As the following pressure loss calculation shows, the

lower calorific value of hydrogen during transport in 80
hbar
pipelines can be largely compensated for:
60 Methane

40 Hydrogen

20
with Pressure loss Pipe friction
coefficient kmg
Pipe length Pipe diameter 0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Gas pressure Gas density

Figure 3: Pressure curve when transporting methane and
hydrogen with the same energy content in a 100 km long
Flow velocity Compressibility
high-pressure pipeline with a diameter of 1,000 mm
number

If the pressure loss is to be kept the same over the distance,

As the compressibility numbers Km of hydrogen and in this case the energy flow of the hydrogen is 83%.
natural gas are different, the pressure loss can be calcu- Figure 3 shows the ratio of the energy flows when the
lated as follows: mean pressure changes.
Km is calculated for methane up to a pressure of
70 bar (simplified) as follows: 1

h Hydrogen/
methane ratio
A pressure of up to 300 bar can be used for hydrogen: 0,75

Medium pressure [bar]g

As the pressure changes during transport, an average 0,5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
pressure pm is used to calculate an average compress-
ibility number Km
Figure 4: Energy flows with the same pressure loss
clearly shows that the hydrogen/methane ratio tends
toward one when the pressure is reduced (0.997 at normal
From equations (1) to (4), the pressure curve for a pressure). The higher the pressure, the greater the influ-
pipeline 100 km long and 1,000 mm in diameter results ence of the different compressibility numbers of methane
as follows: and hydrogen. This reduces the inherently good flow prop-
erties of hydrogen compared to methane. This negative
effect on the energy flow of the lower calorific value is
largely compensated by the higher flow rate. This effect
also occurs in transmission line networks, and particularly
at high pressures, so that the energy flow hardly decreases
in comparison to natural gas operation.

9
3.3. Suitability of the pipelines for hydrogen operation

Relevant studies and previous practical knowledge indicate Material testing in the
that it is possible to convert the existing steel pipelines
from natural gas to hydrogen operation to the extent
‘GET H2 Nucleus’ model project
required for the ramp-up of a hydrogen industry9).

A significant reduction in the service life of high-pressure The transmission system operator Nowega and TÜV Nord
lines due to the influence of hydrogen does not seem likely. are currently testing the GET H2 Nucleus model project
Nevertheless, further examination is needed on whether near Lingen in Emsland, regarding the conversion of a
the operating parameters must be adjusted for certain first line for the transport of hydrogen (material:
types of steel and operating conditions. In the case of STE360.7, length: approx. 11 km, DN 250, built in 1996).
fittings and control valves, the suitability for hydrogen of
the membranes and seals used must also be determined. Based on the existing line documentation and technical
In the case of safety shut-off valves and pressure regulators, regulations, the project participants and examiners
it must be clarified if the control and regulating functions assume that they are fundamentally suitable. Coordina-
must be adapted for the flow properties of hydrogen. tion is currently underway as to which additional
Specific conditions of the existing infrastructure would measures (including strength and fracture mechanical
need to be inspected and assessed and the relevant codes analysis) will be taken as part of this model test to
and regulations consulted prior to determining if the pipe- demonstrate the pipeline’s suitability for hydrogen at the
lines are suitable. maximum operating pressure and the expected change
in operating load. Subsequently, three further lines in
3.4. Compaction requirements for transport the project are to be tested using the same procedure.

To be fed into the transmission system, the hydrogen must The corresponding guidelines from the German Gas and
be compressed to the operating pressure of the network. Water Association (DVGW) for the conversion of gas
Compressor stations at certain intervals along the line transmission lines were approved in September 202011).
ensure that the pressure is maintained despite loss of flow
in the pipeline. To enable optimal utilization with high
transport energy density in hydrogen operation, more and
higher-power compressors are required than in natural gas
operation.

For the planned pipeline projects with the short and medi-
um-term expected amounts of hydrogen, the necessary
compressor technologies are available in the form of ‘tried
and tested’ piston compressors. In the long-term, where a
nationwide switch to hydrogen with a transport require-
ment in the gigawatt range, the turbo-compressor concepts
currently used will be optimized for hydrogen. It can be
assumed that these will be available in a few years if the
market demands them10).

Figure 5: This existing natural gas pipeline near Lingen

in Emsland/Germany converted to hydrogen operation in
the GET H2 Nucleus project

10
H2 readiness of the Service life of the line Security against
German gas pressure load changes

infrastructure
Fracture
hCrack depth a
toughness
The physical H2 readiness of the German
KIC CH4
natural gas system essentially depends on Fracture toughness KIC H2
the possible influence of hydrogen on the
materials used. Especially for pipeline pipes
and fittings made of steel, a reduction in
material toughness can be measured under
Crack growth curve
the influence of hydrogen (‘hydrogen
da/dN
embrittlement’). Depending on the steel
grade and the operating conditions of the
pipeline, this reduction in toughness can Number of load changes N g
lead to the growth of existing crack-like
defects. In these cases, the service life of Figure 6: Schematic representation of the growth of a crack with the initial
the line is therefore reduced. depth a0 depending on the number of load changes N. The critical crack
depth is determined here by the fracture toughness KIC.
According to current knowledge, the
following factors are essential:
Figure 6 shows the crack growth in dependence on load changes and
• Existing crack-like defects, especially on change in fracture toughness under the given operating conditions. The
the inside of the pipeline influence on the material properties of the pipeline steel is recognizable,
however, this effect does not lead to a significant decrease in the service life.
• Hydrogen in atomic form
Nevertheless, it cannot be ruled out that the binding energy of the
• Strong dynamic line pressure changes H2 molecule is broken up by various effects during transport and that
atomic hydrogen is generated on the inner wall of the tube. This can
However, these factors are unlikely to diffuse into the steel and, among other things, reduce its fracture tough-
coincide, as usually: ness. A comprehensive and continuous integrity management of the
systems is therefore recommended to counteract any risks from hydrogen
• Crack-like defects are uncommon embrittlement at an early stage. The observation and analysis of the
material conditions is carried out by physical internal and external inspec-
• No major pressure load changes occur tion devices and monitoring systems, as well as tests of the pipeline.
during regular operation
Special technologies and inspection devices exist that can detect various
• No atomic hydrogen is produced during changes in the pipeline during operation. An essential means of deter-
transport mining the condition and maintenance of natural gas pipelines today is the
so-called ‘pigging technique’. Depending on the test technology used, this
‘pigging’ allows the pipe wall to be checked repeatedly for any anomalies
that may already exist. The existing maintenance concepts and tools can be
adapted to the requirements of hydrogen transport with minor adjustments
that ensure the safe and reliable long-term operation of the hydrogen
transport lines. In 2017 and 2019, for example, a hydrogen transport line
built in 1996 with correspondingly designed pigs was inspected in the USA.
The required tool components have been adjusted to ensure resistance to
uneven wear. At a pressure of 20 bar and a flow of 13,000 Nm3/h, the tool
was able to move safely and without damage, and the inspection was
completed with a 100% sensor cover12).

11
Figure 7: Natural gas compressor station in Lippe, Germany (Photo: stock/Gascade Gastransport GmbH)

a) Extensive maintenance and conversion b) Maximizing the pipeline hydrogen

of the compressor infrastructure Germany’s natural gas transport capacity In the pure hydrogen operation of a
infrastructure mainly uses turbo-compressors with one or pipeline, an energy flow of 80-90% of the natural gas
two impellers. These compressors are operated with gas capacity can be achieved by roughly tripling the amount of
turbines or motors with a drive power of up to 30 MW. gas extracted (depending on the operating parameters).
Depending on the hydrogen content in the pipeline, this This increase can also be achieved in the existing pipeline
infrastructure can be maintained or adapted accordingly: network due to the higher flow rate of the hydrogen.
However, this requires a higher drive power than is reserved
• Up to approx. 10% H2, the compressor can generally for the transportation of natural gas. To maximize the
continue to be used without major changes. hydrogen capacity of the gas network, approximately three
times the drive power and therefore a correspondingly
• The compressor housing can be maintained up to ap- higher number of turbines and compressors are required
prox. 40% H2, impellers and feedback stages as well as than in natural gas operation.
gears must be adjusted.
For transport capacities of up to 750,000 Nm3/h, current
• From approx. 40% H2 the compressor must be replaced. state-of-the-art piston compressors are the most economical
solution. For transport capacities above 750,000 NmÑ/h,
Due to the intensive development work in this area, it can however, turbo-compressors are required. These should be
be assumed that by 2030 the standard compressor drive available within a few years13).
turbines can be operated with up to 100% hydrogen or can
be converted accordingly. Compliance with the applicable
NOx can be ‘limited’ with Dry Low Emission (DLE) tech-
nology.

12
 H2 capabilities in vol. % compared CO2
with 100% natural gas operation Reduction

SGT5-9000HL 593 MW 23%

SGT5-8000H 450 MW 11%
50Hz
SGT5-4000F 329 MW 11%
SGT5-2000E 187 MW 11%
Adaptation requirements SGT6-9000HL 440 MW 23%
for compressor drives 60Hz
SGT6-8000H 310 MW 11%
SGT6-5000F 215 to 260 MW 11%
Compressors that are driven by gas turbines SGT6-2000E 117 MW 11%
draw their drive energy directly from the SGT-800 48 to 62 MW 47%
line and must be adapted accordingly to the SGT-750 40/34 to 41 MW 17%
hydrogen admixture. Most common gas
SGT-700 33/34 MW 47%
turbines for pipelines can already burn a
significant amount of H2 in the fuel: Figure 50Hz SGT-A35 27 to 37/28 to 38 MW 5/100%
8 shows an example of the H2 compatibility & SGT-600 24/25 MW 47%
for relevant gas turbines from Siemens 60Hz SGT-400 10 to 14/11 to 15 MW 3/36%
Energy. SGT-300 8/8 to 9 MW 11%
SGT-100 5/6 MW 11/36%
If the compressors are electric driven, no
SGT-A05 4 to 6 MW 11%
major changes are required for the motors.
At most, the speed must be adjusted and DLE burner WLE burner Diffusin burner with unabated NOx emissions
safety in hydrogen operation checked.
Figure 8: Siemens Energy gas turbines are suitable for hydrogen in the new
system portfolio14)

Comparison of compressor technologies

Piston compressor

In the piston compressor, the gas is compressed with high effi-

ciency in the cylinders. By increasing the number of cylinders and
drive power as well as a parallel arrangement of compressors, an
economically viable transport capacity of up to 750,000 Nm3/h
can be achieved.
Figure 9: Piston
compressor for hydrogen
Turbo-compressor (Inlet pressure 24 bar, outlet pressure 52-75 bar
with 3 MW motor-drive power - stock/Siemens Energy)
In the downstream and petrochemical sector, turbo-compressors
for hydrogen-rich synthesis gases have been used for many
decades. The technology is already available, but its efficiency is
currently lower than that of piston compressors. As a result,
many impellers are required to achieve an acceptable compres-
sion ratio. Therefore, there remains a need for optimization for
future large-scale hydrogen applications.

Studies recommend increasing the peripheral speeds of the

impellers to over 700 m/s due to the low molar weight of
hydrogen to achieve a compression ratio of approximately
1.3-to-1 per impeller. This corresponds approximately to a tripling
of the circumferential speed that is common today. This requires
new hydrogen-resistant impeller materials that can withstand
high centrifugal forces. The necessary developments have
already been initiated so that appropriate wheels should become Figure 10: Turbo compressor for hydrogen -
available in the coming years21). stock/Siemens Energy)

13
4. Storage

The generation of energy from renewable sources, such as 4.2. H2 readiness of German gas storage facilities
wind power and photovoltaics is subject to strong natural
fluctuations. To be able to use the energy efficiently and as The operating regime of storage facilities in a gas infra-
required, large and flexible storage options are required structure geared towards renewable energies differs funda-
that can compensate for these fluctuations. Electricity mentally from previous natural gas operations. While
cannot provide the necessary large industrial capacities natural gas storage primarily serves long-term security of
(especially via grid buffers and battery storage) for the supply, in hydrogen operation they primarily compensate
foreseeable future at economically viable terms. for the short-term fluctuations in ‘green’ generation.
Alternatively, hydrogen is well suited as an energy source
due to its compressibility and storage capacity in storage Therefore, cavern storage facilities are particularly suitable
facilities and can supplement the electricity grid based on for storing hydrogen, as their flexible storage and retrieval
the gas storage facilities in Germany – at short notice and options make them ideal for the fluctuating availability of
at low cost. renewable energy sources. In addition, its geographical
position in Northern Germany offers the strategic advan-
4.1. Existing gas storage capacities tage of storage close to the producer and the associated
relief of the electricity grids. Moreover, numerous cavern
In addition to its gas pipeline network, Germany has storage facilities in the liberalized and European integrated
massive underground gas storage facilities (UGS), which energy market are no longer fully used. Some of them are
are mainly located in Northern Germany. Total capacity, already available for new uses17).
including cushion gas, accounts for:
To check the hydrogen capability of the storage in indi-
• Pore storage: 9,1 billion m3 vidual cases, technical and geological investigations, as
well as corresponding adjustments of certain components
• Cavern storage: 17,6 billion m3 15) and materials are necessary (see information box).

This corresponds to approximately 24% of the European In practice, UGS hydrogen capability was successfully tested
storage capacity. With these existing UGS, all of Germany years ago in two large caverns near Houston, USA and a
can be supplied with natural gas over a period of about smaller cavern in Teesside, United Kingdom18). A pilot
three months16). With their low specific costs, these gas project ‘H2 Research Cavern’ for green hydrogen is also
system storage capacities are an economically attractive being planned in Bad Lauchstädt in Germany19).
option for the large-scale storage of energy from renewable In addition, since 2016, a storage facility in Epe, North
sources. Rhine-Westphalia, has been actively and reliably operating
a cavern filled with helium (with comparable requirements
The large UGS therefore open the possibility of both, for tightness of the salt dome and purity when the gas is
compensating for short-term discrepancies between fluctu- stored).20)
ating generation and the needs of customers, as well as
bridging lengthy ‘dark periods’ to ensure security of supply
in the energy transition.

14
Comparison of H2 storage options in Germany

In Germany, there are two types of UGS for storing natural gas: pore storage and cavern storage.

Figure 11a: Pore storage Figure 11b: Cavern storage

• Gas is pressed into porous rock like a sponge • Cavities in underground salt domes
• Mainly extracted natural gas or oil reservoirs • Found predominantly in northern Germany
Advantage: Advantage:
• Receives large volumes • Injection and withdrawal process in the cavity possible
at short notice
Disadvantages:
• Volume control through brine pendulum cavern
• High pressure required
(reduction of cushion gas)
• Time-consuming storage process
• Short link to the above ground facility
• Saline water in combination with hydrogen attacks
rock, steel, and cement Disadvantages:
• Bacterial methanation in existing stores • Saline water in combination with hydrogen attacks
rock, steel, and cement
• Mixing with remaining stocks of methane in used
storage facilities

H2 readiness of the storage system

An examination of the technical and geological integrity is necessary to check the hydrogen capability of the
storage facilities21):

• Corrosion and diffusion resistance of the materials used • Evaluation of compression ability using compressors in
the injection and withdrawal area with a working pres-
• Thermodynamic properties under operating conditions sure depending on the filling level at approx. 200 bar.
Definition of the materials and the required speed for
• Permeability, long-term stability, and barrier effective- the compression.
ness of casing, cement, and storage rock

• Microbial activities (e.g. methanation processes)

• Qualification of materials for the use of components

such as fittings, compressors, piping, containers, etc.

15
5. Hydrogen industry in operation

The success of energy transition crucially depends on In the start-up phase, supply can be achieved via existing
ensuring that the energy supply is tailored to current needs. hydrogen generation plants and the purchase of green
In particular, customers must be able to trust that their electricity for the operation of the electrolysis. If required,
needs can always be met. To ensure security of supply a rapidly increasing demand can be met by ‘blue’, as well as
reliably and permanently, two components are required: ‘green’ hydrogen from new plants. Steam reformation of
the build-up of the necessary generation, storage, and ‘gray’ hydrogen from methane – analogous to the substi­
transport capacities as a resilient basis for a functioning tution of fossil generated electricity with green electricity
hydrogen industry; and its integration into the German and – will be gradually replaced via the expansion of ‘green’
international gas market enabling trading and creating generation capacities.
additional redundancies.
The additional integration of cavern storage facilities with
5.1. System start-up and first model projects their flexible storage and retrieval options means that the
hydrogen system can be permanently stabilized in line with
The first customers in the start-up phase of a climate- demand and security of supply can be guaranteed22).
neutral hydrogen industry are particularly large industrial At the same time, large-scale storage creates the conditions
consumers with extensive on-site production quantities for a quick and complete decarbonization of the electricity
that can be replaced in the short term by green hydrogen. sector by converting CO2-free hydrogen back into electricity
A successful start-up phase with this target group is a in gas power plants during prolonged dark periods.
central building block for establishing the system as a
confidence-building signal for the overall industry. Putting this in perspective, the first parts of the existing gas
The same applies to the area of mobility, with its high level networks in regional model projects can be converted to
of public visibility. hydrogen operation with comparatively little effort.
As intermediate steps on the way to a German and Euro-
The needs of large industrial consumers and mobility pean hydrogen industry, these systems can be gradually
applications are subject to only slight fluctuations. established to progressively expand generation capacities
With a supply that is designed for renewable energy to supply networks covering the whole area.
sources, there is a steady decrease in the fluctuating gener-
ation. As customer processes are based on the extremely
high availability of the existing electricity and gas systems,
this discrepancy between generation and demand must be
reliably balanced from the start of operation to win the
customers over to the purchase of green hydrogen.

16
Hydrogen industry in the ‘GET H2 Nucleus’ model project

Between Lingen and Gelsenkirchen, the companies BP, • The clean hydrogen is to be generated at the RWE power
Evonik, Nowega, OGE, and RWE Generation are currently plant site in Lingen in an electrolysis plant delivering an
developing the first publicly-accessible hydrogen infrastruc- output of more than 100 MW from wind power.
ture over a length of 130 kilometers in the GET H2 Nucleus
project. The project depicts the entire process chain for a • Existing gas lines from Evonik, Nowega, and OGE will be
reliable, sustainable hydrogen industry in Germany: from completely converted to hydrogen transport and supple-
the production of clean hydrogen on an industrial scale, to mented by smaller new buildings.
transport using existing gas infrastructure, and continuous
industrial acceptance in Lower Saxony and North • This network transports hydrogen to chemical parks and
Rhine-Westphalia. The system is scheduled to start at the refineries in Lingen, Marl, and Gelsenkirchen, where it
end of 2022 and then start producing clean hydrogen to reduces CO2 emissions.
supply customers:
• In the next step, the connection of an existing cavern
storage facility, as well as further H2 generation and
customers will take place.

BP
Refinery, Lingen
y
n
xo
Sa
er
w
Lo

Outline of a
ia -
al e
h in
tp Rh

nationwide
es h
W ort
N

H 2-infrastructure
Electrolysis RWE (source: FN B Gas
Production of Power Station, Lingen
e.V.) with GET H 2
clean hydrogen Nukleus as the
first step
Evonik
Chemical Park,
Marl

Gas pipelines run by OGE,

Evonik, Nowega - converted
to H 2-transport

Public gas grid enables BP

quick connection of other H 2 Ruhr Oel Refiniery,
producers and consumers Gelsenkirchen

Figure 12: Hydrogen infrastructure in the GET H2 Nucleus project23)

17
Projections for a needs-based hydrogen industry
in a practical test model

Based on the key data of the GET H2-Nucleus project, a • Mobility: Continuous provision of approx. 25,000 Nm3
realistic hydrogen management system can be modeled. H2/h, for example for the supply of approx. 50% of the
The following scenario exemplifies the requirements, public transport bus fleet in NRW24)
critical factors, and stabilizing elements of a regional
hydrogen industry geared to customer requirements. • Heat: Supply of a municipal gas distribution network
with a peak load of 50,000 Nm3 H2/h and approx.
The following customer groups, which are particularly 3,000 full-load hours. This here shown assumption
relevant for system start-up and sector integration, were applies equally to 100% converted to H2 as well as to
accounted for as follows: distribution networks operated with the addition of H2

• Industry: Three industrial customers with peak loads • Reverse power generation: Supply of a gas turbine
typical of refineries or chemical parks of up to 50,000 m3 (60 MWel) for use in the generation valleys (residual load)
H2/h each of wind power generation (approx. 500 operating hours)

Initial scenario: H2 supply with 100% onshore wind power

The following decrease curve in Figure 13 shows an extra­ to have generation capacities that exceed the average
polation of the needs of the customers compared to the demand by four times. Such a system would also require
potentially available energy for hydrogen production from disproportionately large capacities to store the hydrogen
regional onshore wind power. produced during peak times to compensate for the high
volatility – or would have to fall back on hydrogen, for
This model calculation leads to enormous discrepancies example from existing capacities for ‘gray’ steam reformation.
between demand and the available energy. To produce the
required annual amount of hydrogen and use the peak An ecologically and economically sensible scaling does not
loads of energy generation, it would therefore be necessary appear realistic under these conditions.

Model of a hydrogen energy system

Decrease from industry, mobility and heating market, generation from wind energy

800
800
h [T Nm3/h]
700

600
600

500

400
400
300

200
200
100

00
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Offshore production H2 consumption
Figure 13: While the hydrogen demand of customers is comparatively stable, renewable energy for production is subject
to strong fluctuations25)

18
Extended scenario: H2 supply from predominantly
renewable generation
Using a mix of onshore and offshore wind in the concrete In the hydrogen system considered here, an intermediate
example for hydrogen production and adding a fully flex- level of only 13% ‘gray’ hydrogen would have been reached
ible storage element (e.g. cavern storage), this leads to a during the start-up phase (Figure 14)26).
significant steady state of production and approximation to
the acceptance curve. In addition, it can be assumed that in The remaining discrepancies between generation and
the system’s start-up phase, not all the capacities required demand can be covered by integrating existing storage
to generate clean hydrogen will be available from the start. capacities. Cavern reservoirs are particularly suitable for
In this phase, bottlenecks can be temporarily compensated the short-term compensation of the natural fluctuations
by existing steam reforming capacities and gradually in ‘clean’ hydrogen production27).
replaced by electrolysis as renewable energies expand.

Model of a hydrogen energy system

Decrease from industry, mobility and heating market, generation from wind energy backup using existing steam reformers

500
h [T Nm3/h]

250

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Gray hydrogen Onshore Offshore H2 consumption
production production production

Figure 14: Realistic start-up phase of the market ramp-up in a hydrogen system with predominantly renewable generation

Resulting requirements for a memory module

Decrease from industry, mobility and heating market, generation from wind energy

400
Storage max. 390 T Nm3 g
350 h [T Nm3/h]
300
300
250
200
200
150
100
100
50
00
-50
-100
-100
-150
f Withdrawal max. 190 T Nm3
-200
-200
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 15: Requirements for injection/withdrawal capacities of the gas storage in the model system
The expected peak loads of 390,000 Nm3/h when loading and 190,000 NmÑ/h during withdrawal can
in principle be handled with existing cavern storage facilities28)

19
5.2. I ntegration into the German and international A parallel hydrogen and natural gas infrastructure at
gas market the long-distance gas level also offers the possibility of
adapting the composition of the gas – and so the degree
As things stand today, the integration of hydrogen into of decarbonization of the energy supply – to the local
the German and European gas systems will take place boundary conditions via mixing stations and ensuring
gradually. It is now time to set the right framework and a secure transition at all levels (Figure 16).
create the first application markets in Europe to provide
an efficient hydrogen infrastructure across the board Figure 17 shows a possible hydrogen network based on
from 2030. existing gas infrastructures as a starting point for a
hydrogen industry in Germany. More than 100 locations
To ensure security of supply during this transition phase, could be connected to this network, which make up
hydrogen transport capacities can initially be built up in approximately 90% of today’s total hydrogen requirements
parallel and cumulatively with existing natural gas systems. in Germany and are located within a narrow corridor along
In many places, existing infrastructures in the form of the routes shown.
parallel natural gas lines can also be used for this.
For example, climate-neutral hydrogen can initially supple- According to initial estimates, the current demand in
ment natural gas as an energy source and gradually replace Germany of around 1.5 million tons of hydrogen per year
it by converting further lines as needed. could be transported via this infrastructure.

Exports Imports
Natural gas, Natural gas,
Hydrogen Hydrogen
biomethane biomethane

Hydrogen
Import station Import station generation

Underground Transmission Transmission Hydrogen

storage network network storage

Industrial
TSO network consumers

Biomethane Mixing station

Distribution Hydrogen Distribution

network generation network
Indiv. mixture
Natural gas, biomethane
VNB network Consumer Consumer 100% Hydrogen

Figure 16: Possible hydrogen integration in the German gas market

20
 Potential cavern storage

Refinery

Steel industry

Chemicals

Possible new areas for H2 pipelines

H2 pipelines after potential conversion

of existing natural gas lines

Cologne

Munich
Disclaimer:
The map is a schematic representation, which makes
no claim to completeness with regard to the storage
and customers shown.

Figure 17: Vision for a German H2 network (stock/Association of Gas Transmission Systems Operators)

The outlined pipeline system therefore appears to be The integration into the German gas networks also offers
sufficiently dimensioned for a rapid start-up phase and the possibility of connecting and significantly helping to
equipped for future energy supply. In the future, this shape a future international hydrogen market. The pan-Eu-
hydrogen demand in Northern Germany could be met from ropean gas market, which is highly developed in interna-
regenerative energies and imports to support the profitable tional comparison, offers very good conditions for entry
expansion of offshore wind turbines and, at the same time, into a global hydrogen industry.
to relieve the power grids in a targeted way.

21
 Mature European
Hydrogen Backbone
can be created by 2040.

Stockholm
Hamburg Göteborg
Amsterdam

Hannover
Dunkerque Copenhagen
Cologne

Frankfurt
Hamburg

Amsterdam Hannover
Berlin

Cologne

Brussels Leipzig
Frankfurt Prague
H₂ pipelines by conversion of
existing natural gas pipelines Paris
Newly constructed H₂ pipelines Stuttgart
Possible additional routes
Munich
Countries within scope of study
Countries beyond scope of study
Potential H₂ storage: Lyon
existing / new Coruña Gijón Bordeaux Milan Venice
salt cavern Bilbao
Potential H₂ storage:
Aquifer
Potential H₂ storage: Marseille
Depleted field
Industrial cluster
Madrid Zaragoza
City, for Barcelona
Rome
orientation
purposes Puertollano Valencia
(if not indicated
as cluster already) Huelva

Tarifa Almería Palermo

European Hydrogen Backbone initiative 2020,

supported by Guidehouse

Figure 18: Vision for a European H2 network (stock/Association of Gas Transmission Systems Operators)

Figure 18 shows a possible hydrogen network for Europe. By connecting terminals to the North and Baltic Seas, the
Here too, the existing gas infrastructure is the starting Mediterranean and international pipeline systems,
point for a perspective view of an international hydrogen hydrogen can be imported even from distant producing
market. The marked pipeline routes show potential trans- countries, such as Morocco or Argentina, and imported and
port routes within Europe as well as docking stations for exported from neighboring countries via the existing pipe-
global import and export by land and sea. line network. In combination with the storage systems, the
network can react flexibly to the respective requirements of
producers and customers. Such a market could therefore
both guarantee provide security of supply with hydrogen
and efficiently control the degree of decarbonization of
energy supply in Germany and Europe.

22
6. Economics

The success of a green hydrogen economy essentially energy sources. To achieve at least economic equality, the
depends on whether hydrogen can meet the needs of current framework conditions regarding the gas infrastruc-
customers in a competitive way under future market condi- ture require, among other things, the following adjust-
tions. In addition to technological developments for the ments30):
efficient production of green hydrogen on an industrial
scale, above all this requires uniform and appropriate • Creation of legal options for the conversion of existing
framework conditions for the hydrogen market. natural gas infrastructures to hydrogen operation
(EnWG)
6.1. System startup and first model projects
• Enabling the operation of pure hydrogen networks
• The costs for hydrogen production and infrastructure (EnWG)
are low compared to the costs of the entire value chain.
Investment and production costs for green hydrogen • Generation-independent regulations for the transport
obtained by electrolysis will in future decrease further and storage of hydrogen (EnWG)
due to large-scale applications, better production
processes and new technologies, as well as cheaper • Regulation of the hydrogen feed into natural gas and
materials. hydrogen networks (EnWG)

• Due to the existing gas infrastructure, the transporta- • Cancellation of the final consumer status for the energy
tion, storage, and distribution of hydrogen can also be conversion from electricity to hydrogen (EEG)
carried out beyond Germany – at short notice and with
little investment. • Compensation for lost feed-in tariffs when generating
green hydrogen (EEG)
• There are still challenges with the efficient compression
of hydrogen. However, the technologies and materials Short-term economic opportunities also offer a quick and
required for this are already in development. targeted implementation of the European RED II requirements
into national laws. Targeted incentives for the use of green
6.2. Legal framework29) hydrogen can be created for refineries in particular31).

So far, hydrogen has not been sufficiently accounted for in Integration into a future international hydrogen market and
numerous regulations – especially the Energy Industry Act renewable energy certificate (REC) trading also offers
(EnWG) and the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG). further economic opportunities. This would require uniform
Given this and the uncertainty regarding how hydrogen European regulations for reliable proof of origin and a
may be regulated with future legal requirements, it is transparent differentiation, especially between green, blue,
therefore economically disadvantaged compared to other and gray hydrogen.

Cost estimate for the conversion of the gas infrastructure

According to current estimates, the establishment of a construction according to current estimates by transmis-
hydrogen infrastructure is possible with limited economic sion system operators (cost estimate Gascade Gastrans-
effort. In particular, the use of existing pipeline routes port GmbH and Nowega GmbH, 2020).
eliminates lengthy and time-consuming planning and
approval procedures. The development of new technologies Converting the compressor infrastructure to maximize
and materials also faces few fundamental challenges and the flow of energy in hydrogen operation requires
has already been initiated in many areas. approximately three times the compression performance
compared to natural gas operation (cost estimate (cost
Against this backdrop, the costs for retrofitting the lines – estimate Gascade Gastransport GmbH and Nowega
including decommissioning, water pressure tests, replace- GmbH, 2020). Accordingly, the compression equipment
ment of fittings and blowers and dismantling of connec- of a hydrogen pipeline, including the drives, would be
tions, etc. – can be estimated at around 10-15% of a new about three times the cost of a natural gas pipeline.

23
7. Outlook

The conversion of existing gas infrastructures to hydrogen The technical challenges of hydrogen technology can
operation has the potential to achieve a breakthrough for largely already be addressed today. The anticipated prog-
the hydrogen industry. ress and the use of digital solutions will lead to continuous
improvements of the overall system. The utilization and
Using existing storage and transport capacities, hydrogen, interactions of gas and electricity grids can increasingly and
as the main pillar of energy transition, can reliably ensure more effectively be controlled to compensate for discrepan-
security of supply during the change to renewable energy cies between the generation of renewable energy and
sources. In this way, energy transition – and sector integra- individual needs in national and international operations.
tion specifically – can be promoted comparatively quickly
and inexpensively along with the expansion of the power Politics, industry, and the energy industry are widely
grids. committed to hydrogen as one of the central energy
sources of energy transition. Two things must now follow:
At the same time, the long-distance gas networks open up the consistent expansion of capacities for renewable elec-
the prospect of a European and global hydrogen market – tricity generation; and the appropriate regulatory frame-
and therefore the opportunity to consider the expansion of work showing the route to an efficient German, European,
the regenerative energies increasingly globally: linking and global hydrogen economy.
generation capacities in countries that are rich in renewable
energy sources with markets and customers in different
regions of the world, reliably and on competitive terms.

24
Source-list:
1) Frans Timmermans 2020, Powering a climate-neutral economy: 18) Patrick T. Mosely, Jurgen Garche 2015, Electrochemical Energy
Commission sets out plans for the energy system of the future and Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing, page 134, 187
clean hydrogen in https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/
19) Energate Messenger, Thorsten Czeckanowsky 2019-08-09, Bad
detail/en/ip_20_1259
Lauchstädt Energy Park turns the salt cavern into a wind power
2) Green Hydrogen Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By storage facility; 2015-10-06, Hydrogen ends up in the pore storage;
Technology 2020 in https://www.grandviewresearch.com/indus- Artjom Aksimenko 2019-04-30, VGS and ONTRAS are researching
try-analysis/green-hydrogen-market hydrogen caverns in https://www.energate-messenger.de/
3) Green Hydrogen Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By 20) Air Liquid 2021, Weltpremiere: Air Liquide betreibt die erste
Technology 2020 in https://www.grandviewresearch.com/indus- Speicheranlage für reines Helium in https://www.airliquide.com/de/
try-analysis/green-hydrogen-market germany/weltpremiere-air-liquide-betreibt-die-erste-speicheran-
4) Dr. Andreas Bode 2019, Methane Pyrolysis – a potential new process lage-fuer-reines-helium
forhydrogen production without CO2 emission in https://www.efzn. 21) ENTSOG, GIE, Hydrogen Europe 2020, How to transport and store
de/fileadmin/documents/Niedersaechsische_Energietage/ hydrogen in https://www.gie.eu/wp-content/uploads/filr/3429/
Vortr%C3%A4ge/2019/NET2019_FF1_04_Bode_Rev1.pdf entsog_gie_he_QandA_hydrogen_transport_and_storage_210521.
5) Christoph Stefan Krieger 2019, Verfahrenstechnische Betrachtung pdf
und Optimierung der Freisetzung von Wasserstoff aus organischen 22) ENTSOG, GIE, Hydrogen Europe 2020, How to transport and store
Trägermaterialien (LOHC) in https://d-nb.info/1191994031/34 hydrogen in https://www.gie.eu/wp-content/uploads/filr/3429/
6) Prof. Dr.-Ing. Andreas Jess, Prof. Dr. Peter Wasserscheid 2020, entsog_gie_he_QandA_hydrogen_transport_and_storage_210521.
Chemical Technology: From Principles to Products, page 445 pdf

7) BMWI 2020, The National Hydrogen Strategy in https://www.bmwi. 23) GETH2 2020, Mit Wasserstoff bringen wir gemeinsam die Ener-
de/Redaktion/EN/Publikationen/Energie/the-national-hydro- giewende voran in https://www.get-h2.de/wp-content/uploads/
gen-strategy.html geth2_infobroschuere_4seiter_200311.pdf

8) Dries Haseldonckx 2009, Concrete transition issues towards a fully 24) Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute for Energy and Climate
fledged use of hyrogen as an energy carrier in https://www. Research 2020, Techno-Economic Systems Analysis (IEK-3) in
academia.edu/17527707/Concrete_transition_issues_towards_a_ https://www.fz-juelich.de/iek/iek-3/EN/Research/HydrogenInfrastruc-
fully_fledged_use_of_hydrogen_as_an_energy_carrier_Method- ture/_node.html
ology_and_modelling 25) Nowega GmbH 2020, Model calculation: Supply of industrial
9) ASME Community, Global Gas Turbine News, Baron Wezel 2019, customers with hydrogen based on onshore wind turbines, Basis:
Europe with renewable gas ready turbines in https://community. Concrete generation profiles, scales to the required annual
asme.org/international_gas_turbine_institute_igti/m/mediagal- purchase quantity
lery/11375/download.aspx 26) Nowega GmbH 2020, Model calculation, For comparison: According
10) Concepts NERC, Francis A. Di Bella 2015, Development of a centrif- to the current status, 95% of the hydrogen is generated ‘gray’ or
ugal hydrogen pipeline gas compressor in https://www.osti.gov/ ‘blue’, chapter 4, page 6
servlets/purl/1227195 27) Nowega GmbH 2020, Model calculation, For comparison: According
11) Conversion of High Pressure Gas Steel Pipelines for a Design to the current status, 95% of the hydrogen is generated ‘gray’ or
Pressure of more than 16 bar for Transportation of Hydrogen in ‘blue’, chapter 4C, page 18
https://shop.wvgw.de/var/assets/leseprobe//510811_ 28) Nowega GmbH 2020, Model calculation, The sustainability of the
lp_G_409_2020_09.pdf storage must be checked in individual cases, chapter 4C, page 19
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Hydrogen getting into focus in https://www.tankstoragemag. the specific conditions of a particular pipeline installation would
com/2020/09/15/rosen-group-developing-hydrogen-pipe- need to be inspected and assessed prior to calculating specific
line-strategy/ details regarding cost of conversion per the applicable codes and
13) Concepts NERC, Francis A. Di Bella 2015, Development of a centrif- requirements of such particular installation.
ugal hydrogen pipeline gas compressor in https://www.osti.gov/ 30) See further: ‘Legal framework for an H2 subnet: nucleus of a
servlets/purl/1227195 nationwide, public Hydrogen Infrastructure’, legal study,
14) Siemens Energy 2020, Hydrogen Power with Siemens Energy Gas IKEM– Institute for Climate Protection, Energy and Mobility e.V.,
Turbines in https://www.siemens-energy.com/global/en/offerings/ September 2019; ‘Toward a competitive hydrogen market - Joint
technical-papers/download-hydrogen-capabilities-gt.html proposal for an association to adapt the legal framework for
hydrogen networks’, position paper by FNB Gas, BDI, bdewm, VIK
15) Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Industrie 2019, Jahresbericht
and DIHK, April 2020; ‘Hydrogen - energy source for a climate-
Energiepartnerschaften und Energiedialoge in https://www.bmwi.
neutral economy? Opportunities and challenges for hydrogen
de/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Energie/jahresbericht-energiepart-
markets in Germany’, white paper KPMG AG Wirtschaftsprüfungs-
nerschaften-2019.html
gesellschaft, 2020.
16) IPAA, Annual Report 2012 in https://www.ipaa.org/wp-content/
31) BMWi 2020, The National Hydrogen Strategy 2020 in https://www.
uploads/2016/12/2012-2013OPI.pdf
bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Publikationen/Energie/the-national-hydro-
17) Landesamt für Bergbau, Energie und Geologie (LBEG) 2019, Erdöl gen-strategy.html
und Erdgas in der Bundesrepublik in https://www.lbeg.nieder-
sachsen.de/erdoel-erdgas-jahresbericht/jahresbericht-er-
doel-und-erdgas-in-der-bundesrepublik-deutschland-936.html

25
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