A Practical Kurdish Grammar 1919

liJi-"
31 *
t^
A Practical
Kurdish Grammar
with English Phonetic Pronunciation
Exercises for translation into Kurdish
Short stories illustrating Kurdish
Composition and Syntax
and
VOCABULARY
by
L. O. FOSSUM, Ph. D.
American Missionary
Translator of Vogt*s BibU History, Luther's Catmchism and Sverdrup's Explanation
into Modern Syriac, and the New Testement and Luther's Catechism into
Kurdish. Author of a Hymn Book, andEditor of a monthly
newspaper, also in the Kurdish language.
Published by THE INTER-SYNODICAL EV.

LUTHERAN ORIENT -MISSION SOCIETY
1919
Fiintedby
AUGSBUBG PUBLISHING HOUSE
UINNKA.POU8, MINN.
TO
Colonel ^lexanbcr 3j>ao
first resident Russian Imperial Consul

at Soujbulak, Kurdistan, Persia,
who fell in the battle of Mianduah, Dec. 28th, 1914
ê a (ZTo&en of ^timtratton
for his Diplomatic talents, his Heroic spirit, his great

interest in the Kurdish People and their tongue, and
in grateful remembrance of many acts of kindness,
Wbii ^lume ii Mibitntttt.
By The Author
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
The Kurdish peopk have a very ancient history. Their

existence and movements in the Zagros, Niphates, and upper
Tigris-Euphrates regions, can be traced back to the early As¬
syrian period. It is claimed by many learned men, that there
is a strong historic connection between the conquered Chalde¬
ans and the Kurds, and that one or other of the Assyrian
Dynasties and their successors were of Kurdish origin. Others
claim that the Kurds belong to the great Medo-Persian group.
Be that as it may, we know for a certainty that the Kurdish
nation has produced a Saladin, a Nadir-Schah, a Kerim Khan
( and many other eminent figures.
The Kurdish language embraces several dialects spoken
in large districts of eastern Turkey, western Persia, and in
the Persian province of Khorazan. To define this territory
more accurately, we may mention the Turkish provinces of
Erzeroum, Bitlis, Diarbekr, Mamuret-el-Aziz, Van and Mosul,
and the Persian provinces of Azerbijan, Ardelen, and Luri-
stan. And besides these, the Kurdish Colonies in Khorazan,
which Schah Abbas I (1587- 1628) transferred from the Turco-
Persian frontier to serve as a buffer state against the Turco¬
mans.
Just as the learned historians disagree as to the sources

of ancient Kurdish ancestry, so the linguists also disagree as
to the ancient source and mother of the Kurdish tongue.
Some claim with considerable certainty that it springs from
the Pehiewi language, others remotely link it to the Chaldean
group, in the way that Armenian is linked to the Persian.
Rawlinson opposes the former opinion in the following words :
"These dialects of the Mountaineers of Zagros have been
hitherto assumed by all writers as remnants of the ancient
Pehiewi, but it appears to me on insufficient grounds : I re-
gard them as derived from the old Farsi, the Farsi-Kadim, as
it is called." Some claim that it is derived from the old
Median language, others claim that Kurdish is one of the
A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR
Modern Iranian languages, a sister language of Modern Per¬

sian, containing a considerable element directly borrowed
from the latter, while others again make it simply a deriva¬
tive of the New-Persian.
From whatever language it may have derived, it has cer¬
tainly in many respects, undergone an individual and peculiar
development of its own. For, as true as it is that it has a great
many words directly borrowed or developed from the Persian,
Arabic, Turkish, and other neighboring languages, so true
it is also, that it has a great many words that are not to be
found in any other tongue.
It is to be feared that too much has been made of the
New-Persian as its mother. The reason for this tendency has
been the fact that most writers who have made a study of
the Kurdish language, have done so through Persian glasses,
and have ridden the Persian 'pony' as the 'key' to every root
and form.
It is well known that the Kurdish language embraces sev¬
eral dialects \yhich differ as you approach the borders of the

various tribal districts. Nearly all of these dialects, or groups
of dialects, have been treated by eminent European linguists,
and from the conclusion that these men have come to, as well
as by a thorough study of their treatises, it does not at all
seem impossible to bring these dialects together on a wider
basis, so as to use one language for several groups of dialects.
The Pioneer Kurdish Grammarian was P. M. Garzoni, who

spent nearly twenty years as a Missionary at Amadia, north¬
east of Mosul. His Grammar was printed in Rome, year
1779. Fortunately this first treatise on the Kurdish language
was written at Amadia, within the borders of that district
where, as was discovered later on, some of the best Kurdish
dialects are spoken.
Since the time of Garzoni, some very able treatises on the

same dialects of Amadia, and the dialects farther north, have
been written by Justi, Lerch, and Rhea.. We also have a
splendid treatise on the dialects of the Bebeh Kurds around

Suleimania by Chodsko; and another treatise on the dialects
of the Mosul district, and of the Kurdish Colonists in Khora¬
zan, by Prof. Beresin. Some years ago an Outline (Schitze)
of the dialects of East-Central Kurdistan was written by Oscar

Mann. And only a few years ago a very able treatise on the
Kurdish language was written by E. B. Soane.
To discover the best Kurdish among these many dialects

is not an easy task. Lerch states that it is useless to ask the
Kurds as to which dialect is the best, for every Kurd claims
that his own dialect is the purest and best. The linguists
themselves have a tendency to give the same kind of an ans¬
wer: The dialect they study the most becomes the purest
and best 'for them.'
Prof. Beresin claims that the purest and best Kurdish is

spoken in the district east of Mosul. Ker Porter comes very
near to the same opinion when he claims that the Ravandoos
group of dialects is one of the purest and best. Lerch, in
comparing his Kermanji with other dialects, says: "I have
found that the Kermanji that I have learned, agrees very much
with that of Garzoni and Beresin." And in speaking of the
dialects still farther south, he says: "The Kurdish language
of Suleimania also, according to the words collected by Rich,
belongs to the Kermanji." By these two statements, Lerch
has practically linked together all the dialects of West-Cen'-
tral Kurdistan, from Hakkari to Suleimania, into one large
group which he calls 'Kermanji.'
As to the dialects spoken in East-Central Kurdistan, be¬

ginning with the districts north and west of Urmia, and going
south through Ushno, Soujbulak, Sardesht, and Sakis, to the
districts of Senna, it is interesting to hear what Missionary
HornH has to say. He visited those parts in 1835, and em¬
ployed as teachers, two Somai Kurds Avho also knew the Hak¬
kari dialect, one Bradost Kurd who also knew the Schikak
dialect, and one Mukri Kurd. Besides these his private ser¬
vant was a Soar Kurd from Mardin.
From the comparative study of these dialects, and from

his attempt to translate the Gospel of St. John into Mukri
Kurdish so as to be serviceable to them all, Missionary Hornli
made the following discovery : "I found to my great joy,
that the Kurds of these tribes understood each other quite
well, and understood what I read to them in the Mukri dia-
lect." And in speaking of the near relationship of the Somai,

Bradost, Schikak, and Mukri dialects, he concludes in these
words: "Ihre zusammenfassung unter einen gemeinschaft-
lichen Dialekt scheint mir nicht unmöglich." He further
claims that the entire series of Kurdish dialects could be col¬
lected into two large groups, one for the North, and one for
the South. In this statement, however, he undoubtedly over¬
looked the difficulty connected with the Zaza group of dialects
in the extreme North. But even of these Zaza Kurds, Lerch,
the greatest authority on that group of dialects, says: "In
general the Zaza Kurds also understand the Kermanji."
As a conclusion, we seem to be justified in making the
assertion, that for linguistic purposes, we may collect all the
Kurdish dialects into three large groups, covering the three
large districts of North, Central, and South Kurdistan. In
North Kurdistan we have the Zaza group, in Central Kurdi¬
stan we have the Kermanji group, and in South Kurdistan
we have the Lur and Kelhur group.
As to which of these three groups represents the purest
and best Kurdish, we would join with Garzoni, Lerch, Rhea,
Chodsko, Beresin, Hornli, and Parter in referring to Central
Kurdistan, and more particularly to the group of dialects spok¬
en by the noble Bebeh tribes in the districts of Suleimania.
Among this group of tribes we find the best Kurdish literature
in the form of history, legends, poetry, and prose.
In speaking of the Mukri tribe, which inhabits Persian
territory south of Lake Urmia, Mr. E. B. Soane, in his book,
"To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise" says : "They
speak the Kurdish language in all its purity of accent and
grammatical form. Their dialect is the most ancient of all,
and while its antiquity is probably not greater than that of
its neighbors, its excellent preservation of ancient forms gives
it a claim to be considered the standard by which to compare
other dialects."
Much time has been spent on the preparation of this Gram¬
mar; but it has not been subjected to so thorough a revision
as I should have liked. My design has been to discover the
best Kurdish in the dialects of Central Kurdistan, particularly
in the Somai-Soujbulak-Suleimania Groups, and to put it into
as clear and simple a system as possible, so that others, like

myself, may learn some practical Kurdish and labor for the
social, moral, and spiritual uplift of the Kurds.
Hoping that this book will be of some use, I submit it
to the favorable consideration of the public.
L. O. FOSSUM.
Soujbulak, Kurdistan, Persia, 1916
SINCERE GRATITUDE is expressed to the following

educators and linguists, for examining the manuscript of this
book, and for their corrections, suggestions, and encouraging
remarks :
Prof A. V. W. Jackson, Ph.D., L.L.D., and Prof. A.
Johannan, Ph.D., both of Columbia University, New York
City; Prof. Carl D. Buck, Ph.D., University of Chicago;
Prof. F. Klaeber, Ph.D., University of Minnesota; Prof. M.
Reu, D.D., Wartbury Seminary, Iowa; Prof. O. G. Felland,
M.A., St. Olaf College, Minn. ; Prof. Martin Hegland, Ph.D.,
Waldorf College, Iowa, and Rev. A. H. Gjevre, M.A., Min¬
neapolis, Minn. L. O. F.
Table of Contents
Introductory Remarks Pages 7-11
CHAPTER I.THE KURDISH ALPHABET
Form of Letters 13 Vowel Changes 23

Phonetic Values of the Let¬ Diphthongs 26
ters 15 Accent 28
Consonants 19 Punctuation 29
Vowels 21
CHAPTER II.NOUNS
Gender . ". 29 Declension 37

Number 31 Table of Declension 46
Articles 32 Exercise I SO
CHAPTER III.- -ADJECTIVES
Position 51 Ordinals 56
Comparison 52 Fractionals S7
Exercise II 53 Multiples 58
Numeral Adjectives 53 Distributives 60
Cardinals S3 Exercise III 61
CHAPTER IV.PRONOUNS
Separate Personal Pronouns 61 Declension of the Demonstra¬

Declension of the Separate tive Pronouns 70
Personal Pronouns 61 Interrogative Pronouns ... 70
Separate Possessive Pro¬ Declension of the Interroga¬
nouns 64 tive Pronouns 71
Suffix Pronouns 64 The Interrogative Pronoun
Declension of a Noun with a (kieha) with Pronominal
Pronominal Suffix 65 Suffixes 71
Reflexive Pronouns 66 Relative Pronouns 72
Declension of a Reflexive Indefinite Pronouns 74
Pronoun 66 Exercise 11
Demonstrative Pronouns ... 69
CHAPTER v.VERBS
The 'Stems' of the Kurdish The Negative and Prohibi¬

Verbs 78 tive Particles 84
Prefixes and Suffixes 79 The Tenses of the Verb.... 86
The Personal Endings 81 The Moods of the Verbs 87
A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR 11
The Accent of the Verb 88 din) ...........137

Conjugations 88 Synopsis of an 'Irregular
The First Conjugation 88 Transitive Verb' (kutin) . . 143
Conjugation of the 'Regular The Passive Voice 146
Intransitive Verb' (tirsan) 89 A Synopsis of the Conjuga¬
Exercise V 105 tion of a Passive Verb... 148
Synopsis of an 'Irregular In¬ A List of Transitive Verbs.. 151
transitive Verb' (hatin) . . . 106 Irregularity of the Verb
Exercise VI 110 (wistin) 167
Conjugation of the 'Irregular The Impersonal 'must' 167
Intransitive Auxiliary Compound Verbs 92
Verb (bun) 'to be' Ill Model of the Conjugation of
A List of Intransitive Verbs 128 a Compound Active Verb. 169
The Causal Form of the Model of the Conjugation of
Verb 136 a Compound Passive Verb. 172
The Second Conjugation. . .137 A List of Compound Verbs. 176
Conjugation of the 'Regular Conjugation of the Verb 'to
Transitive Verb' (khwen- have' 186
CHAPTER VI.ADVERBS
Adverbs of Manner and Adverbs of Interrogation. . .207

Quality 198 Adverbs of Affirmation 207
Adverbs of Number 199 Declarative Adverbs 208
Adverbs of Place and Order. 200 Negative Adverbs 208
Adverbs of Time 203 Miscellaneous Adverbs 208
CHAPTER VII.- -PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions that take Post¬ ing words 209

positions 209 Prepositions that are written
Prepositions that are some¬ separately 210
times joined to the follow- Prepositional Suffixes 211
CHAPTER VIII.- -CONJUNCTIONS
Copulative Conjunctions 212 Conditional Conjunctions ..213

Disjunctive Conjunctions ...212 Causal Conjunctions 213
Adversative Conjunctions ..212 Conclusive Conjunctions ...213
CHAPTER IX. INTERJECTIONS

(214-215)
CHAPTER X.FORMATION OF KURDISH WORDS
Nouns 215 Adjectives 219

Diminutive Nouns 218
CHAPTER XI.KURDISH COMPOUND WORDS
Words formed of an Adjec¬ Words formed of a Participle

tive and a Noun 221 and a Noun 222
12 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Words formed of two Nouns and a Verbal Noun 224

222 Words formed by the use of
Words formed of an Adjec¬ Particles 224
tive and a Verbal Noun... 223 Words formed by repeating
Words formed of a Numeral the Noun 225
Adjective and a Noun 223 Words Designating Rela¬
Words formed of a Noun tionship 225
CHAPTER XII.KURDISH ORTHOGRAPHY
(226-228)
CHAPTER XIII. MISCELLANEOUS
Designation of Years 228 Names of Days, present, past,

Designation of Seasons 229 and future 230
Names of the Months of the Various Periods of Day and
Year 229 Night 230
Names of the Days in the Divisions of Time 231
Week : 229 The Human Body 232
CHAPTER XIV.SYNTAX
233-249
Poetry 249-253
Short Stories 253-259
Gospel of St. John 1:1-28 259-261
Vocabulary 262-279
A Practical Kurdish Grammar
CHAPTER I
THE KURDISH ALPHABET
1. There are thirty-two letters in the Kurdish alphabet. Four
of these, namely ji5 (Gaf), j (Zha), ^ (Chîm),
and t-j (Pa), are strictly Persian letters, and the other
twenty-eight have been borrowed from the Arabic.
2. Form of Letters
Joined to Letters Pronunciation

Name Unconnect¬
ed Char¬ and
acters Final Medial Initial Transcription
V \ a '(spir. lenis)
Alif \ I
Ba < i_^ - 1 b
i
Pa P
r
Ta t
Sa 1.^ -
s
Jim c 2 >c > J
Chîm £ S 9-
ch
V
Hî h
c
Khî kh
c t
Dal d
Zal > i i z
Ra J J J J r
14 A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR
Za
3 .) .) J z
A
Zha zh
J -; .; J
Sin
lT s
(J^ W
Shin sh
1^
lT CT ~
Sad u^ s
O^
Zad
c> t> z
Ti J, it k 1, t
Zi Ji Ji t li z
Eyin
a '(spin asper)
t (2
A P
Ghain
t gh
Fa f
1^
Qaf Ö J A 5 q
Kaf ^ CL5C < < k
Gaf A d^ C f &
Lam J J 1 ) I
Mim
r r ^ m
Nun
6 a I
1
n
Ha
0 *. t * h
Waw
J w
^ .>
Ya
(^ t^
. 1 i
m
y
3. There is also a double or combination letter composed of
1 Alif) and J (Lam), called 'lam-aiif, and written thus: V
4. The letters \ :> i J J j and _j can only be
joined to a preceding letter.
5^ In joining I to î^ or d/ , is formed the ligature

b and b
PHONETIC VALUE OF THE LETTERS 15
6. In joining ö <-J Cj irfi and many other letters to
the letters T 7^ "T and r- , is formed the ligature
9%) pt^ p%i >*i. , etc.
Key to the Pronunciation
7. To get the best results in the pronunciation of the trans¬
cribed Kurdish words, the reader should try to observe the fol¬
lowing diacritical marks :
a, as in father, arm, palm
a, as in am, add, fat.
e, as in end, pet, ten.
Î as in pique, machine, intrigue.
i as in ill, pit, sin.
Ö as in old, row, bone.
0, as in not, odd, occur.
Û, as in tune, lute, jiiry.
u, as in up, under, tub.
Phonetic Value of the Letters
' 8. \ (Alif) has an aspirated sound. Like all other letters
in the Kurdish alphabet, this letter is theoretically a consonant,
but it is being used more and more as a vowel, and as a medial
or final it is pronounced like 'a' in 'father'. Ex. liil, (pad-
isha) 'King'. As an initial it is sometimes pronounced 'a',
and sometimes 'i', according to its supposed or indicated vowel
mark. Ex. ^^| (arz) 'earth', and ^jLJl (insan) 'man';
and sometimes as an intial it only serves as a brace for a follow*

ing 'vowel letter' and remains silent. Ex. (Jj^yJ (eware)
'evening', Jij) (Iran) 'Persia', .jj\ (ûrmi) 'Urmia', etc.
9. <_j (Ba) as a rule, has the phonetic value of our 'b'.
Ex. ,^\> (bab) 'father'. As a final, however, it sometimes has
the sound of 'p'. Ex. c_jl_;-i (sharap) 'wine'.
10. (^ (Pa) and Cj (Ta) have the phonetic values of our
'p' and 't', respectively. Ex. jL (pîaû) 'man', ^J (tre)
'grapes'.
11. Cj (Sa) is used only in words borrowed from the
Arabic, and has the sound of sharp 's' in 'seek'. Ex. öNi«
(masalan) 'for instance'.
12. 5- (Jim) has the phonetic value of our 'j'. Ex. J>-
(jil) 'clothes'.
13. r (Chim) is pronounced like 'ch' in the word 'church'.
Ex. «5^(kich) 'girl'.

14. r- (Hi) is a strong aspirate, and has the phonetic
value of our 'h' in 'hurrah'. Ex. ^J 9j>' (hiriif) 'letter'.
15. 7- (Khi) is a harsh guttural which has no equivalent
in English, but comes very near to the German 'ch' in 'loch'.
Ex. T-j9- (kharj) 'expense'.
16. :> (Dal) as a rule, has the phonetic value of our 'd',
but as a final it sometimes has the sound of 't'. Ex. dA)\>
(daik) 'mother'.
17. i (Zal) is used only in words borrowed from the Ara¬
bic, and has the phonetic value of 'z' in 'brazen'. Ex. C^Ji-
(khizmat) 'service'.
18. J (Ra) and * (Za) are pronounced like our 'r' and
PHONETIC VALUE OF THE LETTERS 17
'z', respectively. Ex's, ^jj (re) 'road', j\j (zar) 'mouth',
19. ^ (Zha) is pronounced like 's' in 'pleasure'. Ex.
j (zhin) 'woman'.
20. (j^ (Sin) has the sound of 's' in 'Esther'. Ex.
^^ (spi) 'white'.
21. p (Shin) has the phonetic value of 'sh' in 'shade'.
Ex. jii (shash) 'six'.
22. ^ Sad), ^ (Zad), J, (Ti), and ii
(Zi) are used only in words borrowed from the Arabic, and have
the hard sounds of 's' in 'hissing', 'z' in 'zone', 't' in 'toss', and 'z'
in 'buzzing', respectively. Ex's. (j_jj l^ sabûn 'soap', jjf
(zarar) 'damage', i- LL» (tabagh) 'August', J]i (zulm) 'op¬
pression'.
23. c. (Eyin) is a guttural, peculiar to the Oriental lan¬
guages, and has the phonetic value of the Greek 'spiritus asper'
(*=). Ex. ^ (amal) 'deed'.
24. L (Ghain) is a hard guttural, pronounced like 'gh' in
'ghost'. Ex. Cjj-£- ghairat) 'courage', 'zeal'.
25. ^ (Fa), J (Qaf), ^ (Kaf), and df (Gaf)

are the same as our 'f, 'q', 'k', and 'g',, respectively. Ex. Ji^
(farsh) 'rug', ^" (qalam) 'pen', ^/ (kur) 'boy', c^J^

(gosht) 'meat'.
26. J (Lam), . (Mim), and ^ (Nun) are the
same as our T, 'm', and 'n', respectively. Ex. J*y (lal)
'dumb', jA (mar) 'sheep', ^^^ (nan) 'bread', j followed
by ,^ is sometimes pronounced like 'm'. Ex. j\Jl (ambSr)
'store room'.
27. o (Ha) is also sometimes used as a vowel. It is a
soft aspirate which, in all initial, and in most medial positions,
has the phonetic value of 'h' in 'heart' ; but in some medial, and
in all final positions, it is pronounced like 'a' in the word 'Mekka'.
Ex. j^jl* (hawin) 'summer', j\>^ (bahar) 'spring', _jje^
(niw-a-rö) 'mid-day', -A-Ij (pishila) 'cat'.

28. J (Waw) although theoretically a consonant, it is
often used as a vowel. Standing alone as a conjunction, it has
the phonetic value of 'o', in 'omit', or 'wa' in 'wagon'. Ex.
^> S^j J dJLjlo (piaw-ek ö zhin-ek-im di) 'I saw a man
and a woman', *yly.i j \^:> jl (aû dakhöa wa dakhöa-tawa)
'He eats and he drinks'. As an initial, or between two vowels, it
has the value of 'w'. Ex. ojj (>-ara) 'come!', (Jy-
(shawe) 'in the night'; but as a medial or final, it is pronounced
'û', or 'ö'. Ex. jjj (rözh) 'day', ^yjj (rûs) 'Russian',
jlç (chaii) 'eye',jj) (biro) 'go!'.
29. ^ (Ya) is also occasionally used as a vowel. As an
initial, or followed by \ , it has the phonetic value of 'y' in
'yard'. Ex. ^^yj^^ (yakhsir) 'prisoner', Li^ (dunya) 'worid',
.\5 (qa-yim) 'hard'. As a medial or final it is sometimes
pronounced 'e', and sometimes 'î'. Ex. ^_^ (kateb) 'book',

yS. (khiz) 'sand'.
Note.It may here be remarked, that several serious difficulties

are in the way of an orthography which shall perfectly represent the
sound of each word. , . t.
One great difficulty is met with in regard to words which have
been transferred from the Persian, Turkish, Arabic, and other lan¬
guages. These words in Kurdish, are often completely disguised,
and years will pass before we successfully trace out their origin.
Others are more or less corrupted, thougli not properly made over;
and still others retain very much of their original form and sound.
CONSONANTS 19
The varieties in dialect present another great obstacle not easily

surmounted. As familiarity is acquired with the language spoken in
all the dialects, reasons are found for changing orthography which
was supposed to be definitely settled.
CONSONANTS
30. Theoretically, all the letters in the Kurdish Alphabet are
consonants, and as such, may be divided into three classes, namely,
'hard', 'soft', and 'neutral' letters, as follows :
(i.) The nine hard letters are ^ ^ r f J* J»
^ ^ and J
(2.) The eight soft letters are O ^ j i O I
<tS and o
(3.) The remaining fifteen neutral letters are 4!.» «-j c->
31. The Kurdish sometimes substitutes ^ for c, , in
words borrowed from the Arabic and Persian. Ex. i (gham)
'sorrow', is usually written ^ (kham) ; J^^ mashghöl
'occupied', is written J^.!.. (mashkhöl), etc. In the same
manner | and c- , j_j and ^_j , c- and J, , * and
j:- , ^y and ^j^ , J and ^^, ^j_5ând ^ sometimes

interchange.
32. The consonant ^ , used as a final, usually loses its
sound when preceded by ^ . Ex. XJIj (pishtend) 'girdle',
sounds like 'pishten'.
33- The consonant j , as a final, in the verbal stem, Passive
Voice, is assimilated by initial j in the passive suffixes ^j

and \j .
34- Initial ^ is sometimes pronounced like 'h'. Ex, ^ş-U

(ajiz) 'disgusted', is sometimes pronounced 'hajiz', and *>«*
(ajam) 'Ajam', is sometimes pronounced 'hajam', etc.
35. The consonant o is often substituted for initial I ,
and sometimes prefixed to \ , both in foreign and native
words. Ex. Jy* (haûwal) 'first', for J_j^ (aûwal) ; ( .-*
(hasp) 'horse', for »--.->l (asp) ; J^^ (humid) 'hope', for
J^j\ (ijmid) ; '...*. (hestir) 'mule', for JLj\ (estir) ;
dJlft (hishk) 'dry', for dbl (ishk) ; JljU (hawal) 'com¬

panion', for J|j\ (awal) ; ^j-Û (hasin) 'iron', for ^^1
(asin) ; ji^ (haiwan) 'balcony', for ^\y\ (aiwan) ;
/^"Jca (hangaûtin)' to hit', for ^yy^) (angaiitin), etc.
36. The consonant e is sometimes dropped when followed
by ^ . Ex. (jL (enan) 'to bring', for jll^ (henan) ;
^yL) (eshtin) 'to leave', for ^^^ (heshtin) ; Ji)\i>'
(shaid or shayid) 'witness', for jLfcli (shahid), etc.
27. For the letter < used as a final in words borrowed from
the Arabic, the Kurdish substitutes O Ex. C-»>-j '> âh-
mat) 'trouble', for 'U^-j In the same way jj is sometimes
substituted for final Cj Ex. Ol_^ (mirat) 'inheri
tance', for CjI -w« (miras).
38. When the same consonant ends one syllable and begins
the next syllable in the same word, it is not written twice, but
one single letter is made to serve for the two, and a special dupli-
cation mark _ or _ called oi (shadd),is placed over it.
Ex. % (malla) 'Mollah', for %. ^ (khulla) 'God', for

ySi- ^5 (dallem) 'I say', for ^^ Cil famma) 'but',
for \^\ , etc.
VOWELS 21
VOWELS
39. It is becoming more and more practicable to employ four
letters of the Arabic-Persian alphabet as vowels. With these
letters representing the long vowels, and certain marks placed over
or under the consonants for short vowels, it becomes easier to
distinguish between long and short vowels.
40. The Long Vowels :There are four letters in Kurdish
used as long vowels, namely I j « and ^c .
(i.) Their Positions: In all medial and final positions
I _j and ^^ usually represent long vowels, and «
is usually long as a final, and sometimes long as a medial.
(2.) Their Phonetic values :--The letter \ and 0
are equivalent to our 'a' ; _j is equivalent to 'û' and 'ö', and
(J is equivavent to 'e' and 'i'.
Note letters are used as long vowels only in syllables

Where they are connected with one or more consonants.
41. The Short Vowels :There are no letters in Kurdish
used independently as short vowels. The letters 1 _j c
and (^ when standing alone in a syllable, .are treated as

consonants.
The short vowels are represented by certain marks placed
over or under the consonants which the vowel-sounds are to

follow.
(1.) Their Marks : 1 is called jj (zabar)
_ is called jj (zir)
and '_ is called Ji->^^ (push)

(2.) Their Phonetic values :
1 is equivalent to 'a' or 'e'
_ is equivalent to 'i'
and '_ is equivalent to 'u' or 'o'
Note. These vowel marks are usually unwritten; they are sup¬
posed to be known.
42. When an initial \ is to be made long, it is doubled,
or one small 'Alif is written over the other thus : \ This
duplication mark is called eJU (madda).
43. Other signs used considerably in Arabic, but scarcely
ever employed in Turkish and Persian, and very seldom met
with in Kurdish, are the following : The sign _ placed over
a letter to indicate that it should be followed by the sound of
'an' or 'en'. Example: ''^li, (masalan) 'for instance'; or the
same sign may be placed below a letter to show that it should
be followed by the sound of 'in' or 'un'.
The. sign y-) 'hamza' is used in different ways in accord¬
ance with the rules of Arabic and Persian grammar; but it
suffices here to note, that when put over a medial ^ the
two dots of that letter are left out, and when put at the end
of a word after * it is pronounced 'i'. Examples: JJI_^1
(israyil) 'Israel' ; t^Û X^ (qissa-i khullai) 'The word of God'.
44. When a word is spelt, the name of the consonant is
first spoken, and immediately after it, is said the name of the
vowel mark accompanying it. Example : In spelling the word
^^1 (amin) T. we say: Alif-zabar (a), Mim-zir-Nun' (min),
'a-min'.
VOWEL CHANGES 23
45. Exercise in Spelling :
^\i (bab) 'father', Ba-Alif-Ba, 'bab'.
dlb (daik) 'mother', Dal-Alif-Ya-Kaf, 'daik'.
j^(kûr) 'boy', 'Kaf-Waw-Ra, 'kûr'.

rtS (kich) 'girl', Kaf-zir-Chim, 'kich'.
^j^(wara) 'come!', Waw-zabar (wa), Ra-Ha (ra),
'wara!
jj> (biro) 'go!', Ba-zir (bi), Ra-Waw (ro), 'biro.'
j»;U(hatim) 'I came', Ha-Alif (ha), Ta-zir-Mim (tim),
'hatim'.
jjj\ (aûrö) 'to-day', Alif-Waw (aû), Ra-Waw (rö), 'aûrö'.
t,^ (lera) 'here', Lam-ya (le), Ra-Ha (ra), 'lera'.
,J^^ (sibhaine) 'to-morrow', Sad-zir-Ba (sib), Ha-zabar-
Ya (hai), 'sib-hai', Nun-Ya (ne), 'sibhaine'.
Vowel Changes
46. The vowels in Kurdish are often changed by assimila¬
tion, contraction, and substitution, and .sometimes by a pro¬
longed pronunciation. These changes, however, are very irre¬
gular, and there are many exceptions to the rules.
47. Assimilation: (1.) A short vowel is. often assimilated
by a preceding or following long vowel. Examples : dllJLj
(pishilek) 'a cat', for dXjLij^ (pishlla-ek) ; dAjL^ (meshek)
'a forest', for dlö^ (mesha-ek) ; dUa> (qissek) 'a word',

^01" Ö,_<^ (qissa-ek) ; J^^\ (aniash) 'we also', for JiyiJ
(ama-ish). The latter is sometimes also written
(amash), the 'zabar' being substituted for the short medial

vowel o
(2.) Of two succeeding long vowels, the following vowel is
often assimilated by the preceding. Examples: ip^'
(atûsh) 'thou also', for (f-'_y'^ (atû-îsh); (fi*XJ( (angösh)
'you also', for^li Aj |(angö-îsh).
Note. Exceptions to this rule are met with in words in which
the preceding vowel is an 1 . Examples: ol li^su (padishaek)
'a King'; i^\ j (brack) 'a brother'; dAil j- (chrack) 'a light';
d\.t>U (khûllaek) 'a God'.
(3.) Of three succeeding vowels, or a vowel and a diph¬
thong, the first vowel is often assimilated. Examples : _jb
(daû) 'in that' or 'in this', for ,\ a> (da-aia) ; _j\, (baû) 'by
that' or 'by this', for j\ <, (ba-aû). And sometimes 'zabar'
IS substituted for the first vowel of the diphthong. Ex. j:>
(daû) for jb > _^ (baû) for jb ; and J (lai3) 'from this'
or 'from that', for _j\ <ij (la-aii).
(4.) Initial \ is generally assimilated by final ^ of the
preceding word. Examples: (j-» c^J. (i min) 'mine', for
^^1 (j\ (I amin) ; ^\j ^\ (i wan) 'theirs', for ^\j\ ^|_ (i
awan) ; <u JU (mail ma) 'our house', for <ul JU (mali
ama).
(5.) The vowel (_$ (i) is sometimes assimilated by a pre¬
ceding vowel (^ (e), when they appear as two successive
medial or final vowels. E-\amples : jLi (pean) 'to or by
them', for ö\ri (Pîan) ; jU (lean) 'from them', for jLJ
(le-ian) ; ^_^ (je) 'place', for ^j^ (jei) ; ^j (re) 'road',
ôr <J.J (re-i); ^^ (pe) 'foof, for ^^ (pe-i).
48. Contraction: Two successive identical vowels are oc-

PROLONGED PRONUNCIATION 25
casionally contracted into one vowel. Examples: dL>. (jek)
'a place', for dl^ (je-ek) ; ^fX> (dek) 'a village', for
dl(j5 (de-ek) ; ^^^ (rek) 'a road', for ^^^j (re-ek) ;

dL (pek) 'a foot', for dl.^ (pe-ek). But very often both
vowels are retained.
49. Substitution: In the pronunciation of the Kurdish
vowels we often hear 'u' substituted for 'û', 'o' for 'ö', and 'ö'
for 'û'. The pronoun y 'thou', is sometimes pronounced
(tij) and sometimes (to) ; and the verb y>- 'he, she, or it went',
is sometimes pronounced (chij) and sometimes (chö).
Medial or final 'e' is sometimes pronounced 'î', and vise
versa. E.xamples: o^ 'to bring', is usually pronounced
(henan), but we sometimes hear (hinan) ; ^J^':> 'he, she, or
it dies,' is usually pronounced (damre), but we sometimes hear
(damri).
50. Prolonged Pronunciation :
The vowels I j and ^ are naturally pronounced long in
some words, in other words the prolonged pronunciation is
due to rhyme in poetry, and in other words again the prolon¬
gation is made for the sake of emphasis. Examples
^\ (akhir) 'last', is pronounced (aakhir)
J I (ao) 'water', is pronounced (aaö).
^ (drûnî) 'sewing', is pronounced (drûûni).
^jî(dakûzhim) 'I kill', is pronounced (dakûûzhim).

^^-^ (se) 'three', is pronounced (see).
<Jl-,avi (shest) 'sixty' is pronounced (sheest).
ojy (kûra) 'stove', is pronounced (kûûra).

>", . (esta) 'now), is pronounced (eesta).
SÖj (ishk) 'dry', is pronounced (iishk).
Note. Many of these vowel changes, and especially the 'substitution',

and the 'prolonged pronunciation', are due to dialectic differences. The
more educated class will not use them as much as the more ignorant,
and some will not recognize them at all, but they nevertheless really
exist.
DIPHTHONGS
51. The Kurdish diphthongs are five in number. Two of
these are sometimes formed by vowel letters, and sometimes
by a vowel letter and a vowel mark, and sometimes htey are
long and sometimes short, according as to what position they
occupy in a word, and we may classify them as 'Simple',
'Combination', and 'Long Diphthongs'. The other three, which
are very little used, are formed by vowel letters only, and are
always 'simple' or short,
52. Simple Diphthongs: The simple diphthongs are
formed by two vowel letters. These are: (1) (j,\ (ai), which
is an interjection; (2) j\ (aû), which is sometimes a
Demonstrative, and sometimes a Personal Pronoun; (3.) (Jj
(oi) ; (4) ^_ (ei) ; and (5) y. (eii).
53. The two first simple diphthongs may stand alone as
an interjection or as a pronoun, and occasionally constitute
the first syllable in a compound word. Examples :jy ^ (J>t ci'
(ai chî dakai) 'O, what are you doing?' <o U- o_jL> jl (aû
piawa chak-a) 'This or that man is good' ; î \j j] (aû wa
dalle) 'He, she, or it says so'; ^jSiiUjU jl (au jar chak
dabc) 'Then it will be good' ; and the compound words : jjj\
(aû-rö) 'to-day'; p._jl (aû-shaû) 'to-night' ; o^y) (ai-wan)

DIPHTHONGS 27
'balcony'; Cf'^j] (aû-lad) 'descendant'; ±ij\ (aû-ish) 'he,
she, or it also'. The other three diphthongs cannot stand
alone, nor constitute the very first character in a word. Ex.
(JjJ (r-oi) 'he, she or it went' ; (Jy~ (kh-oi) 'him, her or
itself; ^^_J (r-ei) 'road'; j^^ (p-ei) 'foot'; ^ (n-eij)
'half, 'in', 'into'.
54. Combination Diphthongs: The combination diph¬
thongs have the same phonetic values as their corresponding
'Simple Diphthongs'. They are only formed differently, being
a combination of a vowel letter and a vowel mark. This
formation is often due to vowel changes.
These are: (1) ^J _ (ai), and (2) j '_ (aû).
55. The combination diphthongs cannot stand alone, but
may occupy any syllable in a word. Examples: e,^£ (gaû-
ra) 'large'; 0_^ (haût) 'seven'; J_^ (khaûn) 'sleep';
cl-^ (malt) 'corpse'; ^_jidL. (ma-bai-ne) 'between'; ^ p^)^

(hal-kaij-tin) 'to happen', etc.
>S6. When a word ending in < is to add fj the o is
assimilated by the (j and the 'Combination Diphthong' ^j-
is formed; and this again is sometimes contracted into iS
'e'. Examples : ^ja^ j\ (aû haspai) 'that horse', is usually
written j_j--* jl and that again is occasionally contracted to
j^~-A j)\ (aû haspe). In the same way ^î]\, j| (au
malai) 'that house', becomes IjU j| and is sometimes even
contracted to JU j\ (au male), etc.
57. Long Diphthongs :The long diphthongs are like

their corresponding 'Simple Diphthongs' as to form. The
reason for their being characterized as long is, that their in¬
itial I is distinctively long, either by virtue of the o'jj' (mad-
da) or prolongation mark placed over it, or by virtue of its
position as a medial.
These are: (i) (j\ (ai), and (2) j| (aii).
58. The long diphthongs may stand alone, or occupy any
position in a word. Examples: (_$\ (ai) 'Ah!' (Is a vulgar
interjection expressing disgust) ; _j\ (aii) 'water'; Û (chal)
'tea'; _5W- (chad) 'eye'; _j\j (taii) 'sun'; ^^\jf- (khö-rai)
'free' ; ^\5C _»\ (am-ri-kai) 'an American'; j\:>jj (zar-daii)
'bile'; A.^ (draû) 'money', etc.
ACCENT
59. The Kurdish nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs
have three distinct accents.
These are: (1) The individual accent or the accent which
the word has as it stands alone, which is usually on the last
syllable.
(2) The combination accent or the accent which the word
has in the sentence, which is very irregular; but it is usually
on the second syllable.
(3) The poetic accent or as the word is accentuated in
verse, which is usually a 'trochaic' accent ( ' " ) on the last
two syllables.
60. The accentuation of the Kurdish words is somewhat
irregular, owing to the fact that words borrowed from other
languages are not accented alike, but have, more or less,
brought their peculiar accent with them.

NOUNS 29
61. In vowel changes, the accent of an assimilated vowel
falls on the vowel that assimilated it.
PUNCTUATION
62. It has been deemed advisable to introduce a few marks
of punctuation. These are, the period (.), as we use it; the
colon (:), as a substitute for our comma and semi-colon; and
the question mark, exclamation point and parenthesis, as we
use them in English.
CHAPTER II
NOUNS
63. There are two genders in Kurdish, masculine and fem¬
inine, and the nouns are of two numbers, the .singular and
the plural.
Gender
64. In Kurdish most animals have names designating the
masculine and feminine, as . j> (hasp) 'horse', and .yi>
(mayîn) 'mare'; Îb (kalabab) 'rooster', and ciAl.^
(marishk) 'hen'; dlL'O^(göl-a-sag) ^dog' (m), and

di\l«d)i(del-a-sag) 'bitch', etc.
The female of mankind also has a special name designating
gender. Ex. ^, (kich) 'giri'; jj (zhin) 'woman'.
But the gender of some animals is designated, as with us, by
the word 'male', ^ (ner), and by the word 'female', ^^
(me), which are usually placed after the noun.
Examples ^ aLIj (pishila-ner) male-cat.

^ aLIj (pishila-me) female-cat.
J a Jy (kotir-a-ner) male-dove.
ig» o^ji (kotir-a-me) female-dove.
; (^j\j (qaz-i-ner) gander (lit. male-goose).
. ^:^(qaz-i-me) goose (lit. female-goose).
^j\ ^ (mirawi-ner) drake (lit. male duck)
- (_$\_j^ (mirawi-me) duck (lit. female-duck).
65. You will notice in the examples given above, that when
the final letter of the noun is a consonant, the vowel letter
'a' or fC 'Î' is used as a connective between the noun and
the gender suffix.
66. Instead of ^;^^^]^ (&öl-a-sag) and ^t^îSii (del-

a-sag), we may also employ the gender suffi.xes j^ (ner) and
^ (me) and say J iSCj> (sag-a-ner) and ^<5cL. (sag-a-
me).
67. In a few instances it seems that the gender suffix^^
(me) may be prefixed to the masculine noun to form the fem¬
inine. Example : js^j> (me-kar) 'female-donkey'. This,
however, is not exactly used, but something practically the
same, namely S U (ma-kar).
Another example is met with in the word QsJ \^(ma-n-ga)
'cow' (lit. 'female ox'). The U (ma) is undoubtedly the same
as the gender suffix ^j* (me), but prefixed to the word
^ (ga) 'ox'. In both cases a vowel change from 'e' to 'a'
may have taken place.

NOUNS 31
Number
68. Plurals are generally formed in Kurdish by suffixing
j\.(an) to the singular.
Examples: ^£ (kiir) 'boy', (jijy (kûr-an) 'boys'; 5t5

(kich) 'giri', jU^ (kich-an) 'girls' ; ^^ (kateb) 'book',
jLJj (kateb-an) 'books'; jU (piaû) 'man', O'Jt,
(piaw-an) 'men'; JU (mal) 'house', o^\a (mal-an)
'houses', etc.
69. When a noun in the singular ends in K (a), that vowel
is usually assimilated by the \ of the plural ending ^
(an). Examples: (jl,jj (qiss-an) 'words', for ^*^,
(qissa-an) ; ^jNl.".. (pishil-an) 'cats', for jIaLL* (pishila-
an) ; jlL.4 (mesh-an) 'forests', for jjUi-.4 (mesha-an).
70. When a noun ends in | (a), the connective (S (x) is
placed between it and the plural ending jl (an). Examples:
^^(gala) 'leaf, ö^.>^ (&a'*-y-^n) 'leaves'; \j

(bra) 'brother', jU^ (bra-y-an) 'brothers'; b^l (pad-
isha) 'King', jl,\i^\, (padisha-y-an) 'Kings'; 1^ \chra)

'light', jU^ (chra-y-an) 'lights'.
71. The singular is often used with a plural signification.
Examples : 4J1, ,_^ JLL>- (chand hasp haya) 'how many horses
are there ?' ; ^ , '^ ^ (galak hasp haya) 'there are

many horses' ; ^' ^ J\-^ J^ 3 3^ C (bist piau wa se
hazar mar) 'twenty men and three thousand sheep'. This
employment of the singular in a plural sense, is always the
case after a numeral.

72. There are also other ways of forming the plural in
Kurdish, which we find employed in some local dialects, and
which the student should know.
Around Sinna, the suffix JS (gal) is used as a plural
ending. Ex. ^':i^ (kûr-a-gal) 'boys', J^^ (iî^h-

a-gal) 'girls', etc. The connective vowel 1 (a) is inserted
between the noun and the plural ending
Around Garroose, and at Kermanshah, the suffix Jj (il)
is employed as a plural ending. Ex. Jjjy (kûr-îl) 'boys',
J^(kich-il) 'girls', etc.

In some parts of Kurdistan, according to Prof. Beresin, the
suffix j (te) or aJ (ta), with the connective vowel _
(a) inserted, is employed as a plural ending. This would
make the word ^J'^p (kiir-a-te) or aJJ^ (kûr-a-ta)

for 'boys'. It is not impossible, however, that this <J_
(a-ta) is a Definite Article suffix, similar to our <0 - (a-ka),
mistaken for a plural ending.
ARTICLES
73. The Kurdish language has no independent articles like
our 'the' and 'a' or 'an' in English ; but there are three suffixes,
two for the Definite Article, and one for the Indefinite Ar¬
ticle, which, as a rule, take their place. One of the Definite
Article suffixes is usually employed in connection with the
Demonstrative Pronoun _j\ (aii).
74. The Definite Article is generally expressed by the suf¬
fix aS (ka), and the vowel .1 (a) is inserted as a connective

ARTICLES 33
between the suffix and all substantives, except those ending
in 1 or 4 .
Examples: <0) jy (kûr-a-ka) 'the boy'; AXsO (kich-a-ka)
'the girl'; 43 ''_Îj (piaw-a-ka) 'the man' ; <o'jlj,> (draw-a-ka)
'the money'; AXiU (chay-a-ka) 'the tea'; ^S^t (tay-a-ka)

'the bale', etc.
75. In the plural the definite article suffix i^ (ka) precedes
the plural ending jl (an), and 0 is assimilated by | . Ex¬
amples: jb jy (klir-a-kan) 'the boys'; jlx>0 (kich-a-
kan) 'the giris'; (j5 '^L (pîaw-a-kan) 'the men' Jo jlj,>
(draw-a-kan) 'the moneys'; ^jl5o\>. (cha-y-a-kan) 'the teas';
ijl5i\J(ta-y-a-kan) 'the bales', etc.
76. In some substantives, final j or j_^ may take the dupli-
mark _ before suffixing ^ (ka), in other words it is
absolutely necessary to employ the duplication mark.
Examples: The word 'man' may be written <o jLj (piaw-a-
ka) 'the man', or O jL (piaû-wa-ka) ; and iö'^^> (draw-
a-ka) may also be written <0 jlj:> (draû-wa-ka) i^ \>. cha-y-a-

ka) may be written aXjU (chai-ya-ka) ; aXj\J (ta-y-a-ka)
may be written ^\; (tai-ya-ka) ; but 4^3:):> (dru-wa-

ka) 'the thorn', cannot be written differently aSCj J" (tre-ya-
ka) 'the grape', cannot be written differently, and many other
words must take the duplication mark I. when the definite
article «6 (ka) is suffixed.
T^. Final 4. is usually substituted by 'zabar', when fol¬

lowed by the definite arricle suffix 4^ (ka). Examples:-
«*X_,aJ (qisa-ka) 'the word', for <0 ^.,^5 ; a5w« (mesha*-
ka) 'the forest', for a^<C--. ; AiCiC j (regarka) 'the road', for
4^Xj . etc.
78. The Definite Article may also be expressed by the suf¬
fix 4 (a), employed in connection with the Demonstrative
Pronoun _j| (aii).
Examples: t>^p _jl (au kûr-a) 'the boy' (lit. 'this or that
boy'); i^ jl(aiJ kich-a) 'the girl'; ejL) j! (aia piaw-a) 'the
man'; e_jlji jl (au draw-a) 'the money'; 4j\>. jl (aii chay-
a) 'the tea'; -ulr jl (aii ta ya) 'the bale', etc.
Note. The demonstrative pronoun j^ (au) may also be used in con¬
nection with the suffi.K <0 (kii), forming a compound definite article.
E.x. AX*"«> jU^û haspa-ka) 'the (this or that) horse';sl* ^_v< jl
4i\>?(aû se haspa-kana) 'the (these or those) three horses.'
79. In the plural the definite article suffix k (a) follows
the plural ending ^j\ (an). Examples: aJIj^ jI (aii kûr-
an-a) 'the boys' (lit. 'these or those boys'); <OUi jl (aii
kich-an-a) 'the girls'; AJljL jl (au piaw-an-a 'the men';
AJljiji ji (au draw-an-a) 'the moneys'; A'^jWrjl (au
cha-y-an-a) 'the teas'; -öllT _jl (aû-ta-y-an-a) 'the bales', etc.
80. This form of expressing the definite article, however,
is less perfect and regular, as it leans heavily towards the
Demonstrative meaning, and il cannot be used as regularly
with all substantives as the simple suffix o (ka).
81. Substantives ending in I j or |^ , frequently only
employ the Demonstrative Pronoun _}\ (aii). In case the
suffix 4 (a) is used, the connective t5 (y) is employed. Ex-

ARTICLES 35
amples: \^\ j\ (au agha) 'the landlord' (lit. 'this or that
landlord'), may also be written 4jlc.l jl (au agha-ya) ; <^ j\
(ati qisa) 'the word', may be written 4) A.^ j\ (au qisa-ya) ;
(Sj jI (aii re) 'the road', may also be written4j^jjl(aii re-ya),
etc.
82. Substantives ending in 4 \ or ^^ , may even omit
the Demonstrative Pronoun, and .still retain the Definite Ar¬
ticle signification. Examples : 4) ej^b,5L (^padisha gaûra

ya) 'the King is great'; .s^^ls (qazi mird) 'the judge
died'; Cj%- aLL (pishila halat) 'the cat fled', etc.
83. Substantives used collectively, very often omit the
Definite Article suffixes. Examples: 4ijL>- oVj (walat
chilön-a) 'How is the country ?' ; jC^j dilt (khalk rahat-a) 'the
people are quiet' ; ^^ :,'^ (kurd faqir-a) 'the Kurds are

poor (humble)'.
84. Other substantives are so definite in themselves, that
no Definite Article is necessary. Examples: oU Û

(hakim hat) 'the Governor came' ; ^c,^j ^^,SC>- (hakim roi)
'the Doctor went'; 4i^ ^\^ (khanim nakhösh-a) 'the lady
IS sick'; 4jô^ JU ^>:l,.!'(sahib mal lera pia) 'the landlord

is not here', etc.
85. The Indefinite Article is generally expressed by em¬
ploying the numeral So (ek) as a suffix.
Examples : S^j^ (kûr-ek) 'a boy' ; ^^ (kich-ek) 'a

g'"'!'; ^j\'_ (pi-aw-ek) 'a man'; ^d.l.jlj:> (draw-ek) 'a coin';
tilW- (cha-y-ek) 'a tea'; " ciXlJ (ta-y-ek) 'a bale', etc. <
86. Final < , in a substantive, is usually assimilated by
36
the ^^ of the Indefinite Article suffix dl (ek). Examples:
cii^ (quis-ek) 'a word' ; dLl^ (mesh-ek) 'a forest' ;
cflLl! (pishil-ek) 'a cat'. (See 47, 1.)

87. Final j , in a substantive, is usually pronounced and
transcribed 'w', Vv'hen followed by the Indefinite Arricle suf¬
fix di) (ek). Examples: dljU (chaw-ek) 'an eye'; dLp.

(shaw-ek) 'a night' ; dl jli) (laghaw-ek) 'a bridle'. The j
is occasionally written 'û' even in these words, and especially
so if it is preceded by a consonant. Ex. di)_^ \ f- (jûanii-ek)
'a colt'.
^88. Final (_$ , in a substantive, is somerimes contracted
with the t5 of the suffix dl (ek), (See 48) ; but very often
both are retained, or only one is writen with a duplicarion
mark placed over it, and in either case, 'y' is inserted as a
connective. Examples: dby (tre-yek) 'a grape', may also
be written SL } ; dJL^^(kursi-yek) 'a chair'; dLjj":)
(darzi-yek) 'a needle', 'a tailor', etc.
89. A substanrive with the Indefinite Arricle suffix diji
(ek), is very often used in a plural sense in connecrion with
the definite and indefinite numerals. Examples: d\JU C^-^
(bist mal-ek) 'twenty houses' ; dUU X^ (chand mal-ek)
'several houses', or if used interrogatively, it means: 'How
many houses?'; '^':> ^.J^ 3^ (hamu kar-eki dakam) 'I

do all kinds of work' ; -^'i jj3 ^J^.j^ (kher-eki zör dakan)
'They do much charity.' <
To this peculiar class of words may also be classed the
Adverb dXjlJb (hend-ek) 'some', 'a few', which is a com-

DECLENSION 37
bination of ,Xê> (hend) 'some', or 'a few', and the Indefinite
Article suffix dl (ek).
90. In the Oblique Cases the Definite and Indefinite Art¬
icles are very often expressed without any other suffix than
the Case ending (_j 'e' or 'î'. Examples: c>:>o^ P 3^ (darkai
pewada) 'close the door!; ^jli 4«J.U(hatim-a shari) 'I came
to the City' ; /> J jj S 3jL)^(marishki dakûzhim) 'I kill a hen';
/>iiL$ju* (hanari dadam) 'I give an orange', etc.
DECLENSION
91. There is really no declension of nouns in Kurdish; but
the different relations are generally expressed by prepositions,
as in English and many other languages, and by a few post¬
positions.
'92. There are seven Cases, of which the Nominative is dis¬
tinguished by its ending, having, as a rule, either the definite
or the indefinite article suffix; the Genitive, Dative, Accusative,
Locative, and the Ablative Cases are distinguished by various
prepositions, and a few postpositions, and generally take the
case-ending ^ (I) or (e) ; the Vocative Case, is distinguished
by its suffixes 4 (a) or (j (e) in the singular, and 4J (ina)
in the plural, or by the interjections ^^\ (ai) or \) (ya).
9vl It is very difficult to give a perfect rule as to which
nouns take (i) and which take (e) as case-endings ; but most
nouns ending in the vowels \ or e , or in the consonants,,
usually take the case-ending (i) ; and most nouns ending in
the vowels _j or ^^ , or in the consonants ö ^ or j

(preceded by \ , 'zabar', or J ), or in the consonants J

or P (preceded by \ or 'zabar'), usually take the case-end¬
ing (e).
Examples: (Nouns taking the case-ending 'i') : (j\j)
(bra-i) 'brother'; J^ (qissa-i) 'word'; ^\; (bab-i) 'father';
iCi^ (dalk-i) 'mother', etc. (Nouns taking the case-end¬

ing 'e') : (S^ (shaw-e) 'night' ; J^^^^ (sibhaine) 'morn¬
ing'; jy^-ş- (chöm-e) 'river'; ^ylj (wan-e) 'Wan'; t^j^
(qörr-e) 'mud'; Û (mal-e) 'house'; ^%>-j^ (saijj-
balagh-e) 'Soujbulak', etc.
94. The Nominative Case is formed, as a rule, by suffixing
the definite or indefinite arricle to the original stem of the
noun.
Examples: a^[. (malaka) 'the house', 4JU jI (au mala)

'the house' (lit. 'this or that house'), dUU (maiek) 'a house' ;
iii jL (piawaka) 'the man', oj[^_ j\ (au piawa) 'the man',
dJbjU (piawek) 'a man'; ,^^1^ (katebaka) 'the book',

4_2^^Kaû kateba) 'the book', dL^ (katebek) 'a book,'
etc.
95. The Genitive Case is formed by employing the pre-
posirion ^_^[ (i) 'of, with or without the arricle suffixes.
Examples: JU (j\ (i mal-e) 'of the house' (without any
definite article), JiCiU (S\ (i malaka-i) 'of the house',

JU j\ (j;|(i au mala-i) 'of the (this or that)house'..
96. In a sentence, the preposition cj,]^ (i) is contracted into
the preposirional suffix ^1 (-i). Ex. iS\^>\ (S'^ A ^y^-T^

(haspaka-i bra-i padisha-i) 'the horse of the King's brother'.
DECLENSION 39
97. The preposition :> (da) or (ta) sometimes placed after
the (I), and thus forming the combination 'I-da' or 'i-ta', is
undoubtedly the Sj-riac Genetive-sign a , unnecessarily
added.
98. 'The Dative Case is formed by employing one of the
prepositions 4i (ba) or ^J^ (pe) 'to', or y (bo) 'to' or 'for',
or the prepositional suffixes 4 (a) or ^^ (I) 'to' with or
without the definite article suffix.
99. The prepositions 4j (ba) and (_y_ (pe) have the same
meaning as our English 'to', denoting 'to what object' or 'to
whom' anything is 'said', 'showed', 'given', 'intrusted', etc.
'There is a great dift'erence, however, as to the connections
in which the two prepositions are used. 4j (ba) is usually
written separately, and may be employed in the declension
of both nouns and pronouns, alike. The j (pe), however,
cannot stand alone, and consequently cannot be used in the
declension of nouns. It is used with the pronouns only, and
it is always suffixed by one of the pronominal suffixes ^
(m) 'me', ^ (t) 'thee', ^^ (î) 'him', 'her', or 'it', ^jlo (man)
'us', j\; (tan) or j (û) 'you', (yan) 'them'. '
''Examples: ^JU 4) (ba mal-e) 'to the house' (Without any
definite article suffix): ÔU 4j (ba malaka-T) 'to the house',
^JU ji 4) (ba afi mala-î) or ^^ j\) (b-aû mala-î) 'to the
house' (lit. 'to this or that house'), , XJU 4> (ba malek-i)
'to a house', ^S ^^ U- 4)(ba hakim-i-dallem) 'I shall tell
the Governor' ;*JS ^ J 4) (ba tijsh dallem) 'I shall also
tell ^you'; ^'xj ,j 4j (ba kas na-i-dam) 'I give it

to nobody'; (»-i(pe-m) 'to me', d-^ (pe-t) 'to thee', ^.
(pe-i) or contracted to (pe) 'to him, her, or it', jU-J
(pe-man) 'to us', ö\1j (pe-tan) or _^_ (pe-û) 'to you', jLj
(pe-yan) sometimes contracted to jL , but pronounced the
same way, meaning 'to them' ; ^S ^_ (pe-m dalle) 'he tells
me'; ^x^^ sJ. (pe dasperim) 'I intrust (it) to him';
voS jliJ C^ (pe-t nishan dadam) 'I shall show you.'
100. Sometimes, for emphasis, the preposirions 4j (ba)
and jJ (pe) are used together in the same sentence. Ex¬
ample: f>^'^ ij i^,^^ (1^^ hakim-i pe dallem) 'I shall tell

the Governor', (lit. 'To the Governor, to him, I shall tell (it)').
101. The prepositions 4j (ba) and ^_ (pe) are also used
to express the 'Dative of Instrument or Agent', denoring 'by',
'with', or 'through' what 'instrument' or 'agent' anything is
accomplished. *
''Examples: S:> ,>ljl JU 4j (ba mal-e azad dabim) 'I shall
be free by (means of) the house' ; ^Jx) L» 4j (ba malaka-i)
'by the house'; J'^ J^ <; (I'a au mala-i) or (J^ 3\

(b-aû mala-i) 'by the house' (lit. 'by this or that house';
^_jXJLo4j (ba malek-i) 'by a house'; ^'^* î ^ _Uj ^ 4j
(ba khwendin-i fer dabim) 'I shall learn by reading';
>.^_'S(^jX^4j (ba chak5-i da-i-brim) 'I shall cut it with the
knife'; ^j>^ (^ (pe dabrim) 'I cut with it'; (^3'^l)\:±
(peyan daniisim) 'I write with them.'
102. In connection with a few words like ( (taslim)
'deliver', ^\L^ (nishan) 'show', etc., a Dative is formed by
the suffix (J (i), of the same meaning as 4j and ^^, . Ex-

DECLENSION 41
am
pies: «J ^ iS3 (y^^ (taslim-i wi dakam) 'I shall de¬
liver (it) to him'; iSS y ^^^ (nishan-i tii da-da) 'he will
show you'. This usage, however, is quite limited.
103. The prpeosition y (bo) is the same as our English 'to'
or 'for', denoting the object 'whither', 'for which', or 'for whom'
anything 'goes', 'is sent', 'transferred', etc. This preposition has
the peculiarities of both the 4j (ba) and the ^_ (pe), in diis
respect, that it may stand alone like the 4j (ba), or it may take
the pronominal suffixes Hke the ^_ (pe). Examples: ^J^* y,
(bo mal-e) 'to or for the house' ; ^y^^ y (bo malaka-i) 'to
or for the house'; ^J^ 3^^ y. (bo aii mala-i) 'to or for the
house' (lit. 'to or for this or that house') ; »s>f:>^\j y (bo
wan-e dachim) 'I am going to Wan' ; ^^_^ y y (^ö tû da-i-
nerim) 'I will send it to you';C*a-'j j^j y y iS^Jîj uj(ziman-
Î kurd-i bo tû zör zahmat-a) 'The Kurdish language is very diffi¬
cult for you'; o^^ çy (Jj\ ojj (wara, awa-i bö-m halgr-a)
'Come! (and) carry this for me!';j»^:jd» C>y (_5^' (ba-li bö-t"
haldagrim) 'Yes, I will carry (it) for you'.
104. The preposition y (bo) is also used to express the 'Da¬
tive of Cause or Purpose'. Ex. (J\a c^jb j\ _jj (bo au kara-i
hatim) 'I came for this work (cause or purpose)' ; ^^ \i ij-^.f" f-

(bo khwendin-i hatim) 'I came for (the purpose of) reading';
(*i^ <îi L^ (ball bö-e hatim) 'Yes, I came for it (for that pus-
pose) '.
105. The prepositional suffix 4 (a), attached to verbs, is
very much used instead of the preposition ^ (bo). Ex.
(^>>-4rU (hat-a chöm-e) 'he came to the river'; ^J\» *^\a>

(hat-a mal-e) 'he came to the house', or 'he came home';
( 4*1.5 (derara arzaröm) 'I will come to Erzeroum';
'^y 4*k.^ (da-i-kain-a nökar) 'I shall make him servant';

'o^JLJljijjy 4^,5^1 (ai^gö dakam-a törawan-i insan-
an) 'I will make you to become fishers of men', or 'I will
make you into fishers of men'.
106. There is also a Dative without any preposition or
prepositional suffix, in connection with the verb y^ (chti) 'he,
she, or it went'. Examle : ^\j> y>: (chû mal-e) 'he went
home', on 'he went to the house'.
107. Some dialects, especially around Sakiz, employ the
suffix ej (wa), which means 'ward' or 'toward'. Example:
epU _,».(chû mala-wa) 'he, she or it wênt home' (lit. home¬
ward). A very common Dative without a preposition is in¬
troduced by employing the 'Suffix Pronouns'. Examples:
\SS J \i (nan-i dada) 'he, she or it gives him, her or it
bread'; /^S û^b-> (draû-yan dadam) 'I give (or will give)
them money'. See 162, 163.
108. The Accusative Case is usually the same in form as
the Nominarive; but it less frequently takes the article suffixes.
Examples: ^3}'> J^^ (malaka-i dafröshim) 'I shall sell

the house'; *ijjsS ^\^ jUaû mala-î dafröshim) 'I shall sell
the (this or that) house'; <^3}> (_/-.J\^ (malek-i dafröshim)

'I shall sell a house'. Without using the arricles : (tT'V-* J^
(mal-e dafröshim) 'I shall sell the house'; b i d^J^ J^
(mal-e drust daka) 'he is building a house' ; ^3y> > iSjr^
(sher-i dakûzhim) 'I shall kill the (or a) lion'.

DECLENSION 43
109. The Locative Case is formed by employing one of
the prepositions oi (da) or 4j (ba) 'in', with the postposi¬
tion \:> (da), or ^ (la-sar) 'on', or any other prepositions
denoting place or position, like ^ (neû), _jjJ (la-neû)
b ^> (da-neû-da) 'in' or 'among', or b ^J 4j (ba neû-da)
'through', etc.
Examples: U3iU c:> (da malaka-i-da) 'in the house,;

IjlJU jb (d-aCi mala-I-da) 'in the house', or 'in this or that
hou.se'; IjiJCjL oi (da malek-T-da) 'in a house'. Without

the definite arricle suffix: UJU o (da mal-e-da) 'in the house';
Uj 4) (ba re-da) or \JS^_j -^.(ba regai-da) 'in^ the road';

ill ^ (la-sar ban-i) 'on the roof; ^\j\ _y_J (la-neû
awana-i) 'among them (these or those)'; 1jJ\j_jj ^ <J (ba
neij zawian-da) 'through the fields', etc. i
110. The postposition \:> (da), may follow direcriy after
the word preceded by the preposition, or it^ may be placed
after the whole clause. Ex.: \j!>\y>- jojp jjj ^J>'^JU oi
(da malek-i zör gaûra wa jûan-da) 'In a very large and beau¬
tiful house'. And it may either be written separately or con¬
nected to the preceding word. Example: \jJy>roi (da
chöl-i da), orijb , J,:^ûi(da chöl-i-da) in the desert'.
111. The suffix oj (wa), with the vowel _ (a) as a con¬
nective, is sometimes used instead of the postposition \:>
(da). Examples: e_j.:^j Aj (ba re-a-wa) 'in the road;
o^l^ly J _j^(chû neû barazan-a-wa) 'entered (went) into
the swine'. A peculiar meaning is somerimes expressed by
the use of the suffix oj (wa). Examples: ^ "j}^ ^. (^^

mal-a-wa chii) 'he went with his whole house (household)';
_j>- e^JUI^ 3 ö'j 3 J^ y jbvJUj (_^* "^ (ba hasp ö manga
Ö nökar ö zhin ö min-dal-a-wa chû) 'he went with horse and
cow and servant and wife and children'.
112. The Ablative Case is formed by employing the pre¬
position 4] (la) 'from', and the postposition \j (ra) or e_j
(wa-) is sometimes used with it to express continuation 'from
a certain place, position, or time on'.
113. 'xJU 4J (la malaka-i) 'from the house' ; ^\j> _y-J
(1-aii mala-i) 'from the (this or that) house'; ^^^So U 4! (la
malek-I) 'from a house'. Or without the definite article suf¬
fix-. ^V» 4] (la mal-e) 'from the house'. \j ^j^ <i (la iirmi
ra) or e._wojjl 4J(la ûrmî-a-wa) 'from Urmia on' ; o^-Z^^ ^
(1-ati wakhti-a-wa) 'from that time on'; o,^.zS>s^^ (la
sibhaine-a-wa) 'from to-morrow on'.
114. The preposition 4J (la), in the form of ^J (le), is
employed with the Pronouns only, and takes suffixes in the
same manner as ^j_ (pe). (See 99.) Examples: {^'ir'-^ fr^
(le-m dastene) 'he takes (it) from me'; («-^r~"'* 3^ (le-ii
dastenim) 'I shall take it from you'.
115. The Vocative Case is expressed in the shortest pos¬
sible form of the noun, without any article suffixes, or by
suffixing 4 (a) or ^c (e) in the singular, and o (ina) in
the plural, or by employing the Interjections (^ (ai) or \
(ya) 'O!'.
116. Masculine nouns ending in a consonant, or in ^^ ,
usually take the suffix 4 Exs. : ejy (kiir-a) 'O boy :"
DECLENSION 45
4jI) (bab-a) 'O father!'; 4^1. (mam-a) 'O uncle!'; oiji
(kurd-a) 'O Kurd!'; <>^^y (naz-mi-a) 'O police!', etc.
117. Masculine nouns ending in j \ or e , usually
employ the Interjecrions <_$! (aî) or I (ya). Examples:
\y cil (ai bra) 'O brother!'; \j\j ^j\ (ai zawa) 'O son-in-
law!'; jU,L$l (ai piau) 'O man!'; ,4c.jjS (^1 (ai darögha)
'0 chief of police!'; "^ l (ya khulla) 'O God!'. The same
words may be employed vocatively without any interjecrion,
or the suffix 4 (a) may be used by inserring the connective
letter (y). Examples: \j> (bra) 'O brother!', or 4)_\^ (bra-
ya); '%. (khulla) 'O God!', or 4.]^ (khulla-ya).

118. Feminine nouns usually take the suffix ^^ (e). Ex¬
amples : (Xi^ (khushk-e) 'O sister !' ; tS^y. (pûr-e) 'O

aunt!'; li (nan-e) 'O grandmother!'; fy y (btik-e) 'O
daughter-in-law!', or 'O bride!'.
119. Exceptions to these rules are met with in the words
(jr^J (rabb-I) 'O Lord!', and 4jb (da-ya) 'O mother!'.
120. There is no distinction between genders in the Vo¬
cative plural. Examples: 4lijlj (piaw-ina) 'O men!'; ^'}^
(zhin-ina) 'O women!' 41)1^ (bra-ina) or (bra-yina) 'O
brothers!'; 4:Lj\j (biib-ina) 'O fathers!'. The interjections
may or may not be used.
121. The interjection I (ya) is employed when beseech¬
ing, and j_^| (ai) is used when mere attention is called for.
122. Nouns in the Vocative Case take the accent as far
forward as possible, usually on the first syllable. Examples:
6jy (kii-ra), S^y- (khiish-ke).

Table of Declension
123. The declension of the noun JU (mal) 'house', with
the Definite Article suffix ^5 (ka). Nouns ending in 4 ,
by virtue of the article suffix o (ka), take (i) in the Oblique
CaseSj and this vowel is contracted with the preceding 4 ,
into the combination diphthong iS '- (ai).
Singular
Nom, malaka) the house
Gen. i malaka-i) of the house
Dat. J<JU4. ba malaka-i) to the house
Ace. nialaka-i) the house
Loc. da malaka-i-da) in the house
Abl. la malaka-i ra) from the house
Voc. JUjl ai mal) O house !
Plural
Nom, malakan) the houses
Gen. i malakan-i) of the houses
Dat. ^bClU 4; ba malakan-i to the houses
Ace. malakan-i) the houses
Loc. laJbCiUo:. da malakan-i-da) in the houses
Abl. b"^'\5C]U4] la malakan-î ra) from the houses
Voc. 4lJU fj\ ai mal-ina) O houses !
124. The declension of the noun JU , w.ith the Definite
Article suffix 4 (a), employed in connection with the Dem¬
onstrative Pronoun ^ (aii). By virtue of the article suffix
4. , the Oblique Cases take the ending (i), and the com-
binatson diphthong (j,l (ai) is formed.

TABLE OF DECLENSION 47
Singular
Nom, 43U j\ _ (- au mala) the (this or that) house
Gen. JJU _ji ,s\J\ au mala-i) of the (this or that) house
Dat. JIU j\ 4j (ba au mala-i) to the (this or that) house
Ace. ^1» jl _(-aû mala-i) the (this or that) house

Loc.loJL. jl e:>(da au mal-i-da) in the (this or that) house
AbLljUU jl 4J(la au fnal-i ra) from the (this or that) house
Voc. 4]U jl iS\ (ai au mala) O the (this or that) house!
Plural
Nom. 4jVU 5^ ( au malana) the (these or those)
houses
Gen. ^VU jl is\ (i ail nialana-i) of the ( or )
houses
Dat. ^*yi« jl -^ (ba aii malana-i) to the ( or )
houses
Ace. j_5»*^^ 3^ ( au malana-i) the ( or )
houses
Loc. \juNV« jl Oi (da au malana-i-da) in the ( or )
houses
Abl. ij (liVU jl 4] (la au malana-i ra) from the ( or
) houses
Voc. 4:JL« jl (j\ (ai air mal-ina) O the ( or )
houses !
125.. Nouns which take (e) as case-ending in the singular
(See 93), may be declined without employing any definite
article suffix. Examples:-

Singular
Nom. ^J\^ ( male) the house
Gen. JU (_^| (iniale) of the house
Dat. Û 4j (ba male) to the house
Ace. ^y ( male) the house
Loc. UJ U ei (da male-da) in the house
Abl. \j JU 4J (la male ra) from the hou.se
Voc. JU (^\ (ai mal) O house!
Plural
Nom. Oi w ( malan) the houses
Gen. jJVU (^j,(i malan-i) of the houses
Dat. JVU 4) (ba malan-i) to the houses
Ace. J*yU ( malan-i) the houses
Loc. laJVU ei(da malan-i-da) in the houses
Abl. \j J'yU4Î(la malan-î ra) from the houses
Voc. <cJ U (_$\ (ai mal-ina) O houses !
126. Nouns which take (i) as case-ending in the singular
(See 93), may be declined without employing any definite
article suffix in the Oblique Cases. Examples:
Singular
Nom. "Odp _( katebaka) the book
Gen. j<»^ (S\ (i katebi) of the book

Dat. ^^^ 4j (ba katebi) to the book
Ace. ^^ ( katebi) the book
Loc. ji.^tC «>(da katebi-da) in the book
Abl.lj i^^ 4] (la katebi ra) from the book
Voc. ^rrP(S\ (ai kateb) O book !

TABLE OF DECLENSION 49
Plural
/
Nom. ö^p ( kateban) the books
Gen. \j\?^
^j iS\ (Î kateban-i) of the books
Dat. JiLjJ 4) (ba kateban-i) to the books
Ace. .JLjD kateban-i) the books
Loc. I-XJ LJD ei (da kateban-i-da) in the books
Abl. Ij jGi 4J ^la kateban-i ra) from the books
Voc. 4L.wJD (^1 (ai kateb-ina) O books!
127. Nouns ending in 4 , may be declined without em¬
ploying any definite article. In the Oblique Cases the Ccise-
ending (i) is contracted with the preceding t> , into the com¬
bination diphthonge (_5 1 (ai). Examples: <^ (qisa) 'the
word'; jU? iS\ (i qisa-i) 'of the word'; ^J^ 4j (ba qisa-i)
'to or by the word', etc.
128. Nouns ending in ^ or ^^ , sometimes insert 'y' be¬
fore adding the case-ending (^ . Examples: '-^V^ '"^
(da dunya-yî-da) 'in the world' ; \jjj 4j (ba re-yi-da) 'in the
road'; \j (Jyj 4) (la rewi-yi ra) 'from the fox', etc.
129. Final 3 > preceded by a vowel, is pronounced and
transcribed 'w', when followed by the case-ending (^ . Ex¬
amples: (jjT (aw-e 'the water'; ]jjj\ 03 (da aw-e-da) 'in
the water'; ij S^ /j (la-sar kew-i) 'on the mountain', etc.

.130. The declension of the noun jU , with the Indefinite
Arricle suffix dX (ek) :
Nom. dLSU ( malek) a house
Gen. LsÛ (S[ (i malek-i) of a house

Dat. ^Ji U 4) (ba malek-i) to a house
Ace. (S-^^ ( malek-i) a house

Loc. IjiiCjU oi (da malek-i-da) in a house
Abl. \j ^Û 4] (la malek-i ra) from a house
Voc. SJ\a (S^ (^î malek) O a house!
131. VOCABULARY
jU (piau) man »L^ (mesha) forest
t_>l (bab) father Av (zhin) woman, wife
^£ (kur) boy (kich) girl
_j| (aii) water ^f^ (chom) river
4LiL> (pishila) cat ^ (qisa) word
,_^(kateb) book t^y,-' (rewi) fox
(mirishik) hen
EXERCISE I
The man (nom.). In the forest. O father! A man. In
the house. Of the woman. The boy (nom.). Of the man.
From the forest. The girls (nom.). In the houses. Of the
forests. To the boys. O boys! From the houses. To the
water. In the river. The cats (nom.). Of the giris. Of the
women. The words (nom.). Of the men. From the book.
To the women. The wife (nom.). To the man. O mani
The cat (nom.). In the water. The fox (nom.). On the hen.
The cat fled. From the house. To the forest. The hen
(nonR). From the fox. To the woman. From the words.
In the book.
Note.Translate this Exercise into Kurdi.sh, writing each sentence as

neatly as possible.
ADJECTIVES 51
CHAPTER III
ADJECTIVES
132. In Kurdish the adjectives undergo no change of ter¬
mination for gender, number, or case ; being the same whether
it qualifies a singular or plural substantive, a masculine or a
feminine noun.
Position
133. In a great majority of instances, the Kurdish adjective
follows its noun, and vowel (j (i) is suffixed to the preceding
noun, as connective. Examples: i3l>- j-X)jj3 (kûrek-î chak)
'a good boy'; ejy rJ^^ (malek-i gatira) 'a large house;
j^ (^y^_3\i (pi-awaka-i pir) 'the old man'; ipj ^SC^
(haspaka-î rash) 'the black horse'.
134. In a few instances the adjective precedes the noun,
either for the sake of emphasis, or to form compounds. In
the latter case, the vowel o (a) is generally inserted as a
connective. Examples: (For emphasis). /^ jjj (zör kas)
'many people'; j\ jjj (zör bar) ^'many loads'; JL dllf

(galak sal) 'many years' ; j\:>. dJlT (galak jar) or jU jjj
(zor jar) 'often'; and nearly all combinations with the definite
or indefinite Numeral Adjectives.
Examples : (In compounds), i^^ e^ (pir-a-merd) 'old
man'; ^-j oj^ (plr-a-zhin) 'old woman'; j\j\, ^JX^ (kon-a-
Daz^r) 'old market'; jjo^ (niw-a-rö) 'mid-day' or 'noon';
3'^''3^ (nîw-a-shaû) 'mid-night', etc.

Comparison
135. There are three degrees to the Kurdish adjective: the
Posirive, the Compararive, and the Superlarive.
(1) The Positive degree is the adjecrive in its uninflected
form. Examples: ^^ (garm) 'warm'; ij^ (sard) 'cold';

iJU (chak) 'good'; 0^^ (i"an) 'beauriful';, xL (blind)
'high' (tall), etc.
(2) The Comparative degree is formed by suffixing ^"

(tir) to the positive. Examples : J^^ (garm-rir) 'warmer' ;
_/,>^ (sard-rir) 'colder'; _p U (chak-rir) or _/U (cha-
tir) 'better'; p\y:- (jûan-tir) 'more beautiful'; _/Adj

(blind-rir) 'higher' (taller), etc.
Note.The noun or pronoun with which comparison is made, is put
in the ablative case, except that the postposition \j (ra) or o^ (wa)
are omitted. Ex. ojejf ^ 4J jl (au la min gaûra-tir-a) 'He is

greater than (from) I oJ cS^ "^ ^J^ "^ O^ (nan la ganam-i
ba qî-mat-tir-a) 'Bread is dearer than (from) wheat', etc.
(3) The Superlative degree is formed by putting the words
(Sy^ 4J la hamû-i) or ij^^ <3 (la hamiian-i) 'than all'
(lit. 'from all'), before the compararive. Examples:
J-^^ (_$J«> 4) (la hamû-î garmrtir) 'warmer than all'

(warmest); y>j^ t,? j*"* 4) (la hamû-î sard-tir) 'colder than
a'lr (coldest) ; _/W (J^ ^ (la hamii-î cha-rir) 'better than
air (best) ; ^!^ jJ l_y*A 4) (la hamiian-i juan-tir) 'more beau¬
riful than air (most beautiful) ; _/jdj ^J\^ 4J(la hamûan-î
blind-tir) 'higher than all' (highest), etc.

ADJECTIVES 53
Note. The superlative may also be said to bo formed by the ablative
of the word _y** (hamu) or ;ji »** (humûan) 'all', placed before
the comparative. The preposition 4) (la) 'from', is in this connection
the same as our English 'than'.
136. VOCABULARY
jdu (blind) tall, high ö^y^ (jûan) beautiful
ijU- (chak) good j,j (rash) black
j^_ (pir) old fjÇ) (gaiira) big
>j-^ (sard) cold /S (garm) warm
EXERCLSE II
A tali man. A beautiful house. A good boy. .A. better boy.
The good horse. The best horse. The blackest horse. The
old man. The oldest man. The best book. The biggest
book. A cold day. A colder day. The coldest day. The
tallest boy. This big boy. That beautiful book. A warm
day. A warmer day. The warmest daj'. The coldest night.
Numeral Adjectives
137. The numeral adjectives are the 'cardinals', ordinals',
'fractionals', 'multiples', and 'distributives.' Like other ad¬
jectives, they usually follow the noun. Exceptions to this
rule, however, will be referred to under 'cardinals' and 'frac¬
tionals'.
Cardinals
138. The cardinal numbers in Kurdish are so nearly alike
the cardinals of the Persian language, that it is somerimes very
difficiilt to distinguish them.

Table:
(yek) 1
\ 4
(do) 2
Y
r (se) 3
i (chiiar) 4
0 (penj) 5
*\ (shash) 6
Y (haût) 7
A (hasht) 8
(no) 9
(da) 10
\«
(yazda) 11
W
(dtiazda) 12
\r
(sezda) 13
\r
(chtiarda) 14
\i
(pazda) 15
»
(shazda) 16
oi^ (haûda) 17
(hazhda) 18
lA
(nozda) 19
r» (bist) 20
(bist Ö yek) 21
r»
J,5 J (bist Ö do) 22

rr
(sr) 30
i« J? (chil) 40
(penja) 50
(shest) 60
ADJECTIVES 55
Y X:}^ (hafta) 70
A< 1'"* (hashta)' 80
^« ^2Jy (nöat) 90
\ < JL^ (sat) 100
r< A^ ji (do sat) 200
\ J^>* (hazar) 1000
0 y'jA rtlj (penj hazar) 5000
\ ' jl\A JlA (sat hazar) 100.000
0 < -1.^ jTtlj (penj sat hazar) 500.000
(j^;U (milyûn) 1.000.000
139. There is really no 'Million' in Kurdish, but as it is
employed in Turkish and Persian, we introduce it. The half-
million, or j\\A X^ rcL) (penj sat hazar), is called j^
(kuliir), and that seems to be the limit of their counting.
From there on, they count the 'kulurs'. In speaking of 250,000
they also very often say, jjlS ^ (neû kuliir) 'half a kulûr',
and in speaking of a million, they usually say jyS î (do
kultir) 'two kulurs'. Giving the number of the inhabitants of
the United States of America at 100,000,000, we would express
it the best in Kurdish by saying, jii JL/> î (do sat kulur)
'two hundred kulurs.'

o
140. As an exception to the general rule for the position
of adjectives, all the cardinals, except the dA)_ (yek). 'one',
precede the noun. The dl> (yek) also usually precedes the
noun, but sometimes as a suffix, it has the meaning of 'one'.
Examples : jU ^j^ (se piau) 'three men' ; jy Cjy>- (haût

kur) 'seven boys' ; dljjj (rözh-ek) 'one day', or jjj dl
(yek rözh.)
141. After cardinal numbers, the noun is usually employed
in the singular, but it may also be used in the plural.^ Ex¬
amples: < j> Ji {do hasp) . 'two horses'; ^^ J^
(shash kateb) 'six books'; jjj d--^ (bist rozh) 'twenty
days'; C)\j^ j\y^ (chuar kûran) 'four boys'.

142. In ordinary conversarion, when a numeral is em¬
ployed in connection with a noun, a second noun is occa¬
sionally introduced between the two. The nouns used are
ji (nafar) 'individual', for persons ; jS (sar) 'head', for
animals; and 4}1:> (dana) 'unit', for things. Examples:
'CSc J^ U (chil nafar askar) 'forty (individual) soldiers';
^ Jl -^ (bist sar mar) 'twenty (head) sheep';
.'/ ^\^ -J (penj dana kursi)" 'five (unit) chairs'.
Ordinals
143. The ordinal numbers are usually formed by suffixing
Cj.j> '- (umin) to the cardinals ending in a consonant, and
yJii (yumin) to the cardinals ending in a vowel. Examples :
y^ (yek-umin) 'first', Cj^.3> (dö-yumin) 'second'

,.. (se-yumin) or^;^..^'third', Cxf'3^ y:: (chûar-umin)
'fourth', (j-J'C.^ (penj-umin) 'fifth', ^^Mî (shash-umin)
'sixth' o^y^ (haût-umîn), 'seventh', (jr**-"* (hasht-umin),
CyJ>y (nö-yumîn) 'ninth', ^j^j>> (da-yumin) 'tenth', etc.
144. Another form of the ordinals, which is nearly iden¬
tical with the Persian, is also much used. It is formed by
dropping the final Oi. (in) of the ordinals given above. Ex-
ADJECTIVES 57
amples: f^_ (yek-um) 'first', ^ji (do-yum) 'second',

^tt::r^ (se-yum) or j»-r-' 'third', etc.
145. Still another way of forming the ordinals, but less
used, is by simply suffixing ^_^ (I) to the cardinals. Examples :
id (yek-i) 'first', (_$j5 (dö-î) or (dö-yi) 'second', ^j^
(se-i) or (se-yi) 'third', etc.
146. The Arabic ordinal Jjl (aûwal) 'first', kurdifiedjnto
Jyb (haûwal), is usually employed instead of the t>r*^
(yek-umin), J>j (yek-um), or (_j>j (yek-i). Sometimes we

also hear the forms ^^^*. (haiiwal-i) and j^J^«>(haûwal-in).
147. The ordinals take the accent on the stem syllable
Examples: 0^^. (yek-umin), Jxj_ (yek-um), ^^ (yek-i) ;
(2;;-4->'^ (d°"y'^"'"'')' (^- (do-yum), (Jji (dö-i; c>.tr::r^

(se-yumin), JL^ (se-yum), ^ (se-i) or (se-yi), etc.
Fractionals
148. The fractional numbers are formed by employing a
cardinal, just as it is, for the numerator, and by suffixing
d\) (ek) to a cardinal, for the denominator. In case the
numerator is only dl (yek) 'one', it may be omitted in
the reading, as the suffix dl (ek) of the denominator usually
suffices for both. Examples:-
\/r dl^ : ^ ^"^î) °^ (new-ek) 1/2

\/r " dL^ (se-yek) 1/3
ii'^ (charak) or
V/t dX^'Jr (charak-ek) 1/4

\/o dLnl^, (penj-ek) 1/5
\/\ diii (shash-ek) 1/6
(^ (haût-ek) 1/7
\/Y
VA dU.1* (hasht-ek) 1/8
\/\ d\>y ("o-yek) 1/9
\/\' d\)_ ©:> (da-yek) 1/10
"(/r di-^ji (do se-yek) 2/3
ilî- ^.S (se charak) or
r/t dli "j^ (_r^ (^^ charak-ek) 3/4
i/o dbtlj jl_j»- (chiiar penj-ek) 4/5
y/y (tXj ^ 3^ (do haiit-ek) 2/7
r/\ \ dl^sjl) (_^ (se yazda-ek) 3/11
\r/t. dlA>- o.^V-- (sezda chil-ek) 13/40
149. When a whole number and a fraction are used to¬
gether, the conjunction j (ö) or (wa) 'and', is put between
them. Examples : dLu «^ i<-~^ 3 3^ (*^lö ö se haût-ek) '2 and
3/7' ; dLli-i ^tJL) j j\fr (chûar ö penj hasht-ek) '4 and 5/8' ;
'--ly d)j>- _j s.>3\j (yazda Ö haût nö-ek) '11 and 7/9'.
150. To express a fractional part of a building, orchard,
field, village, etc., the Kurdish usually employs the word dS^Ji
(dang), dxji y^ (shash dang) 'six dangs' represent the
whole property. ^;f_5vj :> dl (yek dang) or dXSî (dang-ek) is
1/6' of the whole; dxJiji(dö dang)is '1/3'; dl^jdX.)3
(dang Ö niw-ek) is 'l/4';dl»J jdrS_ji(dö dang ö niw-ek) is
'5/12' ;d^S (^(se dang) is '1/2', etc.

151. The fractional number ijj4- (charak) '1/4' or 'a
quarter', is also used in Kurdish to express 'a quarter of an
hour'. Examples : -^'fr ^y^ (se charak) 'three quarters of
an hour'; ilji- /! j_j>oltJ'(sa'at do wa se charak) 'two

ADJECTIVES 59
and three quarters o'clock', or 'three quarters of an hour past
two'; Ûj>r dl _j 5xlo (penj ö yek charak) 'five and a. quar¬
ter o'clock'. The latter may also be rendered ÖS ,j^ j ^^_^
(penj Ö charak-ek).
Multiples -
152. The multiple numbers are formed by suffixing 4»!
(ana) to the cardinals. Examples: 4J\9l" (taq-ana) 'the only
one' (only begotten). The Persian 4J \X) (yek-ana) is also
used. 4Jlji (do-ana) 'twin' ; 4jL-.> (se-ana) 'triplet'; 4Jljl^»-
(chûar-ana) 'quadruplet', etc.
153. For the multiple term 'fold', like 'two fold', 'five fold',
'ten fold', 'an hundred fold', etc., the Kurdish employs dij
(yek) 'one', as the basis. After saying dl (yek), they state
the number of the 'fold', and put the conjunction _j (ö) 'and'
between them. Examples : ji j dl (.yek ö do) 'two fold'
(lit. 'one and two'); rdo j dl (yek ö penj) 'five fold'
(lit. 'one and five') ; 6.> j dl (yek ö da) 'ten fold'; Xp j d\j_
(yek 5 sat) 'an hundred fold', etc.
154. For the terms 'percentage' and 'interest', the Kurdish
has no uniform and complete system of reckoning. There
are three different and very incomplete systems, however, in
general use. All of these employ oi (da) 'ten', as their basis.
The first system: dl«J 4j o5 (da ba new-ek) '5%' (lit.
'ten for (by) a half); dl 4, ei (da ba yek) '10%';
_jJ J dl 4) 0.3 (da ba yek ö neû) '15%'; ji 4j ei (da ba
do) '20%', etc. The second system : d\3 oi ^ ôi (da ba
neû da-yek) '5%' (lit. 'ten for (by) half a tenth'); dl ei 4j ei

(da ba da-yek) '10%'; ^J j dl oi 4j oi (da ba da-yek ö neû)
'15%'; Öi oi ji-h ei (da ba do da-yek) '20%', etc. The
third system : ^.J j ei <j ei (da ba da ö neii) '5%' (lit. 'ten
for (by) ten and a half) ; oij\> 4j oi (da ba yazda) '10%';
^ J eij\} 4j ei (da ba yazda ö neii) '15%'; ei'j\ji 4) oi(da
ba dtiazda) '20%', etc.
As it is necessary to introduce a more uniform. Complete,
and simple system of 'percentage' and 'interest', the author
proposes the following: dlj 4) JL>> (sat ba yek '1%'; _}i 4j Jl/»
(sat ba do) '2%'; ^S ^h J.^ (sat ba se) '3%'; j\^^Xf>
(sat ba chûar) '4%'; t^ 4) X^ (sat ba penj) '5%', etc. And
in this connection the Ji.^may also be written ^Ji^ (sati).
Distributives
155. The distributive numbers in Kurdish are formed by
employing the cardinals in pairs, with or without using the
preposition ai (ba) 'by', or the prepositional suffix 4 (a)
'to', as a connective. Examples: dl dl (yek yek),dl 4) dli
(yek ba yek), or dl 4^ (yek-a yek) 'one by one'; j^ j:>
(dii dû), or ji <, j;> (do ba do) 'two by two'; Ojî^ C'»>'
(jut jtit), or CjyÂi Cjy>-(jût ba jut) 'pair by pair' ; ^-d- ^
(se se), or ^^ Ai ^^ (se ba se) 'three by three', etc.
156. VOCABULARY
Jij*- (chiiar) four i_.* (hasp) horse
OsJU (manga) cow d'J^ (haiit) seven
y> (mar) sheep Jî^ (hauwal) first
3^ (neû) half C>y>- (jut) pair

PRONOUNS 61
EXERCISE III
Four horses, seven cows, and twelve sheep. Fifteen head
of sheep. Forty-eight men, twenty-six women, eighteen boys,
and seven giris. The year ( ^^ 'sale') one thousand nine
hundred and sixteen. Two thousand one hundred and twenty
tomans ( jUy'toman'). Sixty tomans, four krans ( ^J
'gran'), and eight shais ( ^J^ 'shaî'). Fourteen tomans, seven
krans, and sixteen shais. I'he first horse. The second cow.
The fourth book. The seventh word. The three first words.
Half a day. Half an hour ( oU> 'sa'at'). Five pounds
( e^ 'lira') and a half. One sixth. One ninth. Seven and
three fifths. Eleven and four sixths. Two o'clock ( olw
'sa'at'). Four o'clock. Two and a half o'clock. The only be¬
gotten. Triplet. Twenty fold. Sixty fold. Ten percent.
Eight percent. Fifteen percent. Fair by pair. Three by three.
CHAPTER IV
PRONOUNS
Separate Personal Pronouns
157. The separate personal pronouns vary a little in the
different dialects. In the following table, those forms, how¬
ever, which are considered the best, and are most commonly
used, are written first.
Singular Plural
^\ (amin) 3^ (az) I 4.,| (ama), 4*jJ (ema) we
y\ (atii) thou ^l(angö), ey\ (ewa)
jl (aii) he, she, it , ö^ft (hiin) 'you'
j|_j|(awan) 'they'
Note.The pronunciation of _j| (au) is not like that of the Turkish
or Persian, but like 'ovv' in the word 'cow'.
158. The separate personal pronouns are declined like the
nouns, with a few exceptions. The case-ending ^ (i), is not
so regularly employed as in the nouns, excepting in the 3rd.
person singular. In all cases, except in the nominative, accu¬
sative, and vocative, the initial \ is dropped, when their re¬
spective prepositions are placed before them. In the second
person plural or^l(angö), however, the initial 1 is usually

retained, but it occasionally changes its vowel-sound from 'a'
to 'i'.
159. The separate personal pronouns are thus declined:
First Person
Singular Plural
Nom, Q^\ - (- amin) I 4.o\ . (- ama) we
Gen. ^^ ^|(i min) of me -u fj\{l ma.) of us
Dat. ^ 4) (ba min) to me ^ aj (ba ma) to us
Ace. ^^1 - (- amin) me '*^l - (- ama) us
Loc. b Q/> ei(da min da) i "U ei{da ma da) in us
in me
Abl. \j ^ a) (la min ra) J 4« 4] (la riia ra) from us
from me
Voc. ^1 c^Kai amin) O me! 4.«l (j:\(ai ama) Q us!
Second Person
Singular Plural
Nom. y\ - (- atû) ' thou p^\ . (- angö you
Gen. y (j\ (i tii) of thee _jXJ 1 (j\{l ingö) of you

PRONOUNS 63
Dat. y. 4^ (ba tti) to thee yt^ \ 4j (ba ango) to you
Ace. y' - (- atii) thee yö\ . (- ang5) you
Loc. \i y 0.5 (da tû da) 1.5 ysJl o(da ango da) in you
in thee
Abl. Ij y 4J (la tû ra) Ij yvJl 4](la ango ra) from you
from thee
Voc. y\ t^l (ai atû) O thou ! jXJ I (J\ (ai ango) O you !
Third Person
Singular Plural
Nom. y - (- aii) he, she, it jljl - (- awan) they
Gen. (^j (_^1 (Î wi) ö^j LÛ' wan) of them
of him, etc.
Dat. ^j 4j (ba wi) (jlj "^J (ba wan) to them
to him, etc.
Ace. iS^ - (- awi) ö^J' - (- awan them
him, her, it
Loc. l_bj oi (da wi da) \i jl_j oi(da wan da)
in him in them
Abl.lj (_5j <J(la wi ra) I J jlj 4J(la wan ra)
from him from them
Voc. ^S3\ c5l(ai awi) O he! jjljl 1^ (ai awan) Q they !
160. Occasionally, when special emphasis is required, the
initial I is also retained in the oblique cases. Examples:
iy\ 4j (ba amin) 'to me'; yl ^(la atû) 'from thee';ljbjl ei
(da awi-da) 'in him' ; _jX; I 4j (ba ango) 'to you' ; jl^ t^J. (i
awan) 'of them' ; \XyA ei (da amai-da) 'in us'.

Separate Possessive Pronouns
161. The separate possessive pronouns are formed by em¬
ploying the preposition (_5l (i) 'of, with the separate per¬
sonal pronouns.
Singular Plural
fy (S\(i min) mine 4.* <^[(i ma) ours
y (J^ (i tû) thine jXJ I t^l(i ingö) yours
(S3 iS^ (^ '^^'') 1^>S' hers, its 0^3 iS^ (' ^ân) theirs
Note. Âs to vowel changes, see 47, 4.
Suffix Pronouns
162. The suffix pronouns cannot stand alone. They consist
of a letter or a syllable which is added to the end of nouns,
verbs, and prepositions, and have the value of pronouns.
Singular Plural
1. Person : *- '-(i)m' 1. Person: iJU'man'
2. Person: O '-(i)t' 2. Person : u^ '-tan' or _j 'ti'
3. Person : iJ 'V 3. Person: jL'-yan', or '-ian*
163. When joined to nouns, the suffix pronouns are em¬
ployed possessively and objectively, denoting the Genitive and
Dative Case. Examples :
Possessively :
y 1 /
« (kateb-(i)m) my book] tJW»Ji(kateb-man) our book
C^ (kateb-(i)t) thy book 0^^^^ (*âteb-tan) or

y
(_j--I> (kateb-i) his, her, or its j,-T> (kateb-Q) your book
book ö\-^ (kateb-yan) their book
Objectively :
Oî -J \j (nan-(i)m dadan) they give me bread

PRONOUNS 65
ija CJ» (nan- (i)t dadan) they give thee bread
jii ^ lî (nan-i dadan) they give him, her, or it bread
(jai (jUj\) (nan-man dadan) they give us bread
Qii vjtj \3 (nan-tan dadan) or
jii y U (nan-ti dadan) they give you bread
öi> jlJy (nan-yan dadan) they give them bread
164. When joined to verbs, the suffix pronouns are em¬
ployed subjectively and objectively, denoting the Nominative
and Accusative Case. Examples:(jl.5j^y-(khöard-yan) 'they
ate';öjy Cii5(da-t-kûzhin) 'they will kill you (sing.)' Fur¬
ther explanation of the 'Suffix Pronouns', employed in connec-
tioti with verbs, is given under 'The Personal Endings'.
165. When joined to verbs, the suffix pronouns are em¬
ployed objectively, denoting the Dative, Accusative, and Ab¬
lative Case. Examples: j,.;b 0;)^(pe-t dallem) 'I shall tell
you (sing.), (See 99); ^Jîy^. çy (bö-m bikhiiene) 'read for
me', (See 103); ^î ö'z^ (le-tan dastenim) 'I shall take
it from you', (See 114), o^^ («-J (le-m dadan) 'they strike
'^ ji.5 (jl«J(le-man dadan) 'they strike -us'.
166. Declension of a Noun with a Pronominal Suffix
Singular Plural
Nom. i^^ji - (- dars-(i)m) Ji \j-ji - (- darsa,n-(i)m)
my lesson ray lessons
Gen. |,-.jj (_^l(i das-(i)m) *jUji ,j\{\ darsan-(i)m)
of my lesson of my lessons
Dat. j^ji 4j (ba dars-(i)m) A\j-ji 4) (ba darsan-(i)m)
to my lesson to my lessons
Ace. ^3^ - (-dars-(i)m) J>\^ji - (- darsan-(i)m)
mylessons
Loc. \X,r^ji oi(da dars-(i)m iJUiUji o:> (da darsan)-i)m
da) in my lesson da) .in my lessons
Abl. ^.^ji 4] (la dars-(i)m) |J \^ji 4j(la darsan)-(i)m)
from my lesson from my lessons
Voc. f^ji (j\ (ai dars-(i)m) J> V»ji (^l(ai darsan-(i)m)
O my lesson ! O my lessons!
Note. For the omission of the postposition U (ra) in the Ablative

Case, see 112 and 113.
Reflexive Pronouns
167. The reflexive pronouns are formed by adding the suf¬
fix pronouns to the pronominal adverb ^>- (khö) 'self.
Singular Plural
^j>. (kh5-m) myself jU^(khö-man) ourselves
>Zjy- (khö-t) thyself (jl"«i'(khö-tan) yourselves
j^î- (khö-î) ijl^(khö-yan) themselves
him- her-, itself
Declension of a Reflexive Pronoun
168. A reflexive pronoun is declinable as follows:-
Singular Plural
Nom. Cjy- . (khöt) öl'y-. (- khotan)
yourself yourselves
Gen. 0«»- tÛi khöt)

of yourself of yourselves
PRONOUNS 67
Dat. C>^ 4j (ba khöt) jjlTji- 4) (ba khotan)
to yourself to yourselves
Ace. Cjy- - (- khöt) O^ f" - (- khotan)
yourselves
Loc. \iCjy>-oi{da khöt da) \i o^ J^ 0.5 (da khotan da)
in j'ourself in yourselves
Abl. oy- ^ (lakhot) jl7ji- aJ (la khotan)
from yourself from yourselves
Voc. Cjy- (^1 (ai khöt) ö^ y- (S^ (ai khotan)

O yourself ! O yourselves!
169. The reflexive pronouns are used very much as 'em¬
phatic possessivcs'. Examples : fî- j_jJU(niali khom) 'my
(own) house'; (jî. ^^^^p (katebi khöi) 'his, her, or its (own)
book'.
170. 'A separate emphatic possessive' is formed by employ¬
ing the preposition ^| (i) 'of, with the reflexive pronouns.
Examples : çî- (_$l (i khom) 'my own' ; 0»i- t^l(i khot) 'thine
own'; (Jî- (S\ i'l khöi) 'his, her, or its own'; jLî- (_jl(i
khöman) 'our own' ^j'i î. fj\ (\ khotan) 'your own';^jl^ ^^1
(Î khöyan) 'their own'.
171. 'An emphatic reflexive' may be formed by employing
the separate personal pronouns with the reflexive pronouns,
and placing the preposition y (bo) 'for' between them. Ex¬
amples : çj>- y ^ya\ (amin bo khom) 'I myself (lit. 'I for my¬
self ); O^ y yl(atû bö khöt) 'thou thyself; (Sj^ y jl (aû
bö khöî) 'he, she, or it -himself, -herself, -itself; ijUji- y 4..I
(ama bo khöman) 'we ourselves'; ^ J>- y yul (ango bo khö-

tan) 'you iyourselves' ; ' tj\$>- y O'j' (awan bo khoyan) 'they
themselves'; ^ W-^b^ (awana chakin) 'these are good';
|,-Lw':> ^y 1 jV (awanai dastenim) 'I shall take these'; 'gljl
^j J W (awaachatirin) 'those are better' ; I ^^ y rJ Ijl (awani
dagrim) 'I shall catch those''.
172. The separate personal proriouns, 3rd. person singular
and plural, are employed as demonstratives.
Singular Plural
ojl (awa) this 4;|jl (awana) these
jl (au) that jljl (awan) those
«'jy'"(höwa) that yonder 4>\_j»& (howana)
those yonder
Declension of the Demonstrative Pronoun
173. The demonstrative pronouns jl (awa) and |4J\_5l
(awana) are thus declined :
Singular Plural
Nom. oj\ - (-awa) this Nom. 4J\_j^ - (-awana)
these
Gen. (S3 ij,\ (i wai) of this Gen. f^^3 (S^ (i wanai)
of these
Dat. {S3 ^. (ba wai) to this Dat. (_^>lj 43 (ba wanai)
to these
Ace. S^ - (- awai) this Ace. (y'j' - (-awanai)
these
Loc. IjbJ oi (da wai da) Loc. IJLJ l_j ei (da wanai-da)
in this in these
Abl. S3 ^ (la wai) Abl. (J^3 ^ (la wanai)
from this firom these

PRONOUNS 69
Voc. ojl (^l (aîawaî) Voc. 4Jljl (^1 (ai awana)
'O this! O these!

Note 1.For the declension of jl (au) and jljl (awan), see 159.
But as a demonstrative, ^j\j\ usually takes the case-ending (_$ (i).
Note 2. öjjSi (howa) and 4J\_jy> (howana) are declined like
.ejl(awa) and 4Jljl(awana).
174. The demonstratives ej\ , aj\j\ and ö\j] , are only
employed substantively, and stand alone. Examples : jj3 "3^
<>}/>- (awa zor kharap-a) 'this is very bad'; ^î I J_^ (jjS
(awai qabul nakam) 'I do not accept this'.
175. The demonstrative ^\ (aii) is often employed sub¬
stantively, like the ejl , but it is usually placed before a
substantive and employed adjectively for both the singular
and plural. Examples : 4J 3^ «1 (aii chak nia) 'that is not
good'; 4j ejy. ej^ y (afi kiira gaiira ya) 'that boy is big';
(^!_jX>- 45 Uj jI (aii kichana chkölan) 'those girls are
small'; 4J\j»- 4 j! (au kateba jiian-a) 'this book is beau¬
tiful'; <J ^l^ ^JJ ^ (aii qalama chak nia) 'this pen
is not good'.
Demonstrative Pronouns,
176. When the demonstrative ^1 (au) is employed with
a substantive, that substantive takes the suffix 4 (a), the
same as when jl is use with the suffix 4 (a) in forming
the definite article. Example; 4JVU ^ (aii malan-a) 'these
or those) houses'. (See 78 and 124.)
177. Instead of ejl (awa) and 4îlj\(awana), we occa¬
sionally hear <ibj|(atiha) and 4;\*jl (aiihana); and besides
j) (aii) we sometimes hear ^* (haû) 'this one' or 'that
one'. The two latter are also frequently used together. Ex-
amples : eyt> oj\ (awa hawa) 'this is he', or 'this is the one' ;
o^fc j\ (au hawa), 'that is he', or 'that is the one'.
178. For a distant past time, season, or period, the Ac¬
cusative of jl (au) is employed. Examples : t^jjj (_^j|(awe
rözhe) 'that day ; ^^p ijj\ (awe shawe) 'that night', or 'that
same nighf ; î (jj] (awe dame) 'that rime', or 'that same
time'; j [i^'j ^_^j\ (awe zistane) 'that winter', or 'that same
winter'.
179. In some districts of Sinna and Sakis, ç is substi¬
tuted for ^ , in the demonstratives. They say 4.^1 (ama)
for ejl (awa), <o Ul(amana) for 4Jijl (awana), /»\ (am for
j\ (au), and jUl (aman) for ^j|jl (awan).
180. The word (ji\ (adi) or iJXc (hadi) 'that is so', or
'it is so', seems to be a corruption of the Ancient Syriac
feminine ?aôi' (hadi), for which we have ??'oi (hada) in
the New Syriac.
Interrogative Pronouns
181. The interrogative pronouns in Kurdish are of two
classes, personal and impersonal.
(1) The personal interrogative pronoun is ^J) (kie) 'who?'
(2) The impersonal interrogative pronouns are ^>- (chi)
'what?', and 4Li (kieha) 'which?', or 'which of two?'.
Note. The interrogativ pronoun 4^ is equally applicable to per¬
sons and inanimate things.
Declension of the Interrogative Pronouns
182. They are thus decline:
Nom. ^ - (kie) who?
Gen. f^ t^l(i kie) of whom?, or whose?

PRONOUNS 71
Dat. (_^ "^^ (ba kie) to whom?
Ace. (_^ - (kie) whom?
Loc. \i ^ 0.5 (da kie da) in whom?
Abl. ^y ^ (la kie) from whom
Voc. ^ (5l(ai kie) O who?
Nom. (_^ - (chi) what?
Gen. >-.(_^l (i chi) of what?
Dat. j>. <j (ba chi) to what?
Ace. j>- - (chi) what?
Loc. \i ^ oi (da chi da) in what?
Abl. (_j>- 4J (la chi) from what?
Voc. (_j>- c^l (ai chi) O what?
Nom. 4. > - (kieha) which?

y
Gen. 4^ (^l(i kieha) of which?
Dat. 4^*S 4j (ba kieha) to which?

^~y \
Ace. 4^ - (kieha) which?
Loc. b 4-.J) oi (da kieha da) in. which?

y
Abl. 4^ 4) (la kieha) from which?
Voc. 4^ (_jl (ai kieha) O which ?
The Interrogative Pronoun i^ , With Pronominal Suffixes
183. The interrogative pronoun 4^ may take the plural
'Suffix Pronouns', as follows :
(jlo 4^ (kieha-man) which one of us?
(ju 4j^ (kieha-tan) or
^f-5 (kieha-ii) which one of you?
(jl \Ş (kieha-yan) which one of them?

Note. The latter is occasionally contracted to (jlf-5 (kiehan).
184. These suffixed interrogative pronouns may be de¬
clined in the usual way. Examples : ;jU a^ (J,\ (i kieha-
man^ 'of which one of us?'; (j\J 4^ 4j (ba kieha-tan) or
_y^ 4j (ba kieha-ii) 'to which one of you?'; ö^ '^ <J
(la kieha-yan) 'from which one of them?', etc.
185. The indeclinable interrogatives ij^'ş: (chilön) and
_j^ (chii) 'how?', are quite frequently employed instead of
(^ (chi) 'what?'. Examples: W.hen a question is not well
heard or understood, the person questioned very often asks,
öyV (chilön?) 'what?', 'what did you say?'. And the ex¬
pression j^lj^»-(chû zanim) 'what do I know?', is very
common.
Relative Pronouns
186. The relative pronouns in Kurdish, as in Persian and
Turkish, are somewhat unsettled and uncertain ; but the most
common relative pronoun is «0 (ka), which is eqtiivalent to
'who', 'which', or 'that', in English.
Besides this, the impersonal interrogative pronouns (J^

y
(chi) for 'that', and 4^^ (kieha) 'which', are also quite fre¬
quently employed as relative pronouns.
Examples j*; J^ -O ^ i Ji?- ^y'\ (amin haz dakam ka au
be) 'I wish that he would come' ; W >, j>. J I'llJ (nazanim chi
daka.) 'I do not know what he is doing'; y\ -O f_J 3^ J> \
^ ^333 ' ^y^ (agar au be ka amin diiima : zor chak-a)
'If he comes whom I have seen, it is very good';
^3^ 3iy (^ («-;l (pe-m bille kieha-ii nakhösh-a) 'tell me

which one of you is sick'.
PRONOUNS 7Z
Note. The pronunciation of 4$ (ka) is not 'kî', as in Persian and

Turkish, but it is pronounced likp 'co' in 'copy'.
187. Nouns preceding the relative pronoun <0 , take the
suffix ^ , as a connective. And when such nolms end in
< (a), by virtue of the definite article suffix or otherwise,
the vowel 4 and the connective vowel (^ are contracted
into the combination diphthong ^1 (ai). Examples:
S33 ' y "j-^ "^ ip 3^ (piawaka-i ka lera bii röî) 'The

man who was here, went away (left)'; ,ja\ ^^ SX-^. ^
V '^'^ i*^-^ (aii piawa-i ka amin dabinim kharap nia)
'The man whom I see is not bad';,-^l 45 ,JU 3I
ii W ^y_Ji (aii mala-i ka amin kriûma chak-a) 'The house
that I have bought, is good'.
188. Compound Relatives are formed by employing the
personal pronoun ^ , and that demonstrative pronoun oy ,
in connection with the relative pronoun o Examples:
4i ^_jl (aw-i ka) 'he who,' or 'she who', (used for persons
only) ; <o (_$jl (awa-i ka) 'that which', (used for things
only); ^ \i-il :>y, ^S (^jl (aw-i ka mirt, .pa-disha bii) 'he
who died was King'; 4J ii\>- ^ i ^\ to 1^^ (awa-i ka atii
dakai, chak nia) 'that which thou doest is not good'.
189. We very often, however, find the relative pronoun
omitted in Kurdish, where we' invariably should look for
it in English. Examples: ^1 ^ Ai\t:> j Ş Jljlç. dli_5\j
(piawek chawani kiier, hata kin amin) 'A man, his eyes
blind, canie to me'. We should expect to find these words :
;jji^ ^ 4jU oy jJi <ybW ^ {^.3^ (piawek-î ka cha-

wani kiier biin:hata kin amin) 'A man whose eyes were blind,
came to me'.
190. Occasionally 5 I (agar) 'if is employed as a relative
pronoun. Ex. ejll-* S33J "^ Sy^ 3 rVt S I ^^»- (khulla agar
amin a atû-î ba rözhaî henawa) 'God, who has created you and
me' (lit. 'God, who has brought you and me to light (day)').
In the dialect of Rawandooz p I (akii) is employed for
the relative pronoun, and farther north, around Wan and
Erzeroum, the I disappears and S (ku) remains as the
relative pronoun. Although these forms cannot be recog¬
nized as the best Kurdish, it is well that the student should
know them.
Indefinite Pronouns
191. The interrogative pronouns ^_^ and j^ , preceded by
the Persian word jt> (har) 'every', or 'each', are also em¬
ployed as indefinite pronouns. These and other indefinite and
distributive pronouns given in the following list require no
particular notice. As adjectives they are all indeclinable.
(har)
(hamij) every (all)
(kuli)
(har kie)
Ji (har kas)
whoever
(har kasek)
(har kamek)
(kas)
dyJ (kasek) anybody (somebody)

y
(hamii kas)
i'RONOUNS 75
^ jti (har chi) whatever
dA ..", T (tishtek)
1
j- anything
dXZsr (chitek)
tiLl>- j», (har chitek)

everything
(iLl>. »<A (hamii chitek)
^Jo_ (yeki) one (some one)
(iJLjC (yek-yek) anyone
dl ^j> (bar yek) everyone
j_jş- â (hamii je)

everywhere
dis.^ M.4> (hamu je-ek)
^ y> (har je)

wherever
dJL>- y (har je-ek)
cjV M.a (hamii lai) everywhere (direction)
^ jA (har lai) i wherever (whatever
dXjV ^* (har laiek) direction)
j^_j y» (har wakht)

whenever
dJLli-j .» (har wakhtek)
Oi-j _^4> (hamu wakht)
4» (hamisha)
- always
(rjj^ (dayim)
(jl«j|.5 (dayiman)
j_jj _^* (har, rozh)

every day
dXj3j yk (har rözhek)
3_jj M.* (hamu rozh) all day
_yi _^ (har shati)

every night
dJl «i j» (har shawek)
^ _y»A (hamii shau) all night

JJJ 3 y (shau Ö rozh) day and night
jV y (har jar)
^-> V y^ (har jarek)
every time
jU- y^ (hamii jar)
jjljW ^«A (hamii jaran)
'^j5 y» (har dök) both
(SX\ (idi) other (next)
4Xj_ajl (idika) the other
tî ,iC(yekîdi) \
t^ - .J" one another
t^^po (yektiri) J
4J>G (filan) so and so
55^.» (hich)
1
^1>. (chish) nothing
^ (chu)
fjSâ> (hich-kas) nobody
S (kam)
J>^ (kam-kam) - some (a little)
d3L*5 (kamek) ^
1
JCL* (hend)
t
dlu:^'(hendek) i- some (a few^

!
dL,ö*> (b'azek)
Xsç (chand)
y several
d)>X:>- (chandek) 1
4* "
dAiX? _/k (bar chandek) as many as ,
dlD (galak)
- many (much)
333 (z5r)
laJ (qat) ' ^not at all (never)

VERBS ^7
192. VOCABULARY
ejl (awa) this (J> (kie) who?
j1 (au) that, this ^j> (dars) lesson
^/T (chi) what?

\^ (kieha) which?
EXERCISES
This is my book. Whose book is that? That is your
book. What is this ? This is a lesson, and it is a big lesson.
What is he doing (b:>'daka')? T am reading ( ^_f-:>
dakhuenim) my lesson. This is good. Who is your friend
( C^ji 'dost') ? My book is my friend. There are ( (j*^
han') many lessons in this book. Whose (^^ô'kte^n' books
are these? These are (is) my father's books. VVhich book
is the most beauriful, this one or ( öV '^^^'^ *^^^ °"^^

This one. Is that yoiir house? This house is larger and
better for me. Which one of them is better for you? That
one. What are-ôu doing ( , î 'dakai') ? Nothing. Who

did ( iji 'kirt') this? Nobody.
Note. Always put the verb at the end of the sentence.
CHAPTER V
VERBS
193. The Kurdish verbs are of two large classes, transitive
and intransitive, and io each one of these classes there are
both regular and irregular, both simple and compound verbs.
Note.A transitive verb expresses an action which passes from &e

agent to an object, and an intransitive verb expresses an action « State.
that is limited to the agent.
(1) A regular verb is one that employs one stem in all its
tenses. Examples : (jU J" (tir.san) 'to fear', (j-'^ (bitirse)
'fear thou!'; ij\iy (stitan) 'to burn'; (^ yi (bisiite) 'burn
thou!'; ö-^y- (khwendin) 'to re-ad', ij^y^ (bikhwene) 'read
thou !', etc.
(2) An irregular verb is one in which no connection is to
be seen between its fundamental parts or stems. Examples:
^yl* (hatin 'to come', ^^ (be) or ojj (wara) 'come thou!';
^ (kutin) 'to .say', Jj bille) 'say thou !', etc.
(3) A simple verb is one that does not employ an auxiliary
verb. All the examples given above under regular and irreg¬
ular verbs are simple verbs.
(4) A compound verb is one that employs a noun or an
adjective in connection with an auxiliary verb. Examples:
(j""^ J:>(dill sijtan) or ^y slS j (zig siitan) to pity (lit.
'to hear-burn' or 'to stomach-burn'); ^Û -jçj (wa-bir ha¬
tin) or 6^_ol* j-ô} (wa-bir hatin-a-wa) to remember (lit.
'to come memory-ward') ; J:>^ _Û(hazir kirdin) to pre¬
pare (lit. 'to make ready'); ^jll^ î\ (azyet keshan) to
suffer (lit. 'to drag torment'), etc.
The 'Stems' of the Kurdish Verb
194. All the tenses of the Kurdish verb are based on two
fundamental parts called 'stems' of the verb. These are most
conveniently found in the Infinitive and Imperative, as in the
Turkish and Persian languages.
(1) The infinitive, which forms the basis or. 'stem' for all
the past tenses of all moods, ends in j (n). Examples:

VERBS 79
Ö\mJ (tir-san), öyir (chûn), ^j\ (barin), and ^;;)'!* (hatin).

By dropping the final Ö (")< ^^ have Ly (rirsa), _j>-
(chû), iSj\) (ban), and 0\* hat). These present the four
kinds of berbs, as recognized by their ending in c? ^ I .
and in a consonant. The infinitive is identical with the Pre¬
terite Participle Active, or the 3rd person singular of the
Preterite tense.
(2) The simple imperative, or 2nd person singular imper¬
ative, which forms a convenient basis or 'stem' for all the
present and future tenses of all moods, ends in iS (e), 4
(a), or J (Û). Examples: ^^^ (birirs-e) 'fear thou!';
0^ (bikaw-a) 'fall thou !' ; y^^ (bich-ii) or jy^ (bir-ö) 'go

thou!'. This stem, with a few exceptions, is identical with
the 3rd person singular, present Subjunctive. The exceptions
are, that final e in the imperative is changed to i , and
_j (ii) is changed to ^ (e), and _j (ö) adds \ to form
the 3rd person singular, present Subjunctive. Examples: 4X>
rbika) 'do thou!', becomes \Sj (bika) 'he, she, it may do';
y^. (bichii) 'go thou !', becomes (_j^ (biche) 'he, she, it may
go' ; and 3y (biro) 'go (away) thou !', becomes Sjy (birwa)
'he, she, it may go (away)'. And by subsrituring i (da)
for the prefix > (bi) in the imperative, we have the 3rd
person singular Indicative present. Examples: \i i (daka)
'he, she, it does'; î (dache) 'he, she, it goes'; \_jj>
(darwa) 'he, she, it leaves'.
Prefixes and Suffixes
195. The prefixes and suffixes of the Kurdish verbs are of

two kinds, separable, and inseparable
(1) The separable prefixes are \i (da) or jj (ro) for
'down', ^}^ (hal) for 'up', ji (dar) or jioj (wa-dar) for
'out', j_j (war) for 'back', or 'around', \j (ra) for 'straight',
or 'firm', ^ (le) for 'on', V (la) for 'away', ^J (te) for
'in', and occasionally ej (wa) for 'ward' (direction). Verbs
employing any of these separable prefixes are called 'Com¬
posite Verbs'.
(2) The inseparable prefixes are J (bi) and i (da).
The prefix > (bi) forms the imperative, the present, per¬
fect, and pluperfect subjunctive, and is considerably used in
all tenses of the conditional and optative. The prefix i
(da), when substituted for the imperative prefix > (bi), forms
the present and future indicative, and when prefixed to the
preterite, forms the imperfect indicative. In 'composite verbs'
the prefixes J (bi) oi ^ (da), are inserted between the verb
and the separable prefix. Examples: j,JLJ.>b (da-da-nishim)
or ^îjj (rö-da-nîshim) 'I sit down'; eSjl* (hal-bi-gra)
or o^^lst (hal-gra) 'carry thou!', or 'take thou up!';
Oj>^,33 (war-bi-gra) or oy 33 (war-gra) 'receive thou!'
or 'take thou back!'. The prefix > (bi) is very often omitted in
composite verbs.
(3) The prefix ,ej (wa), given under 'separable prefixes'
above, is one of the most difficult subjects in the Kurdish
language. It is sometimes employed as a prefix, and some¬
times as a suffix. In some words it is separable, and in others
it is inseparable. Some dialects employ it as a prefix to a

VERBS 81
certain word, and other dialects use it as a suffix to the same
word. In general it means 'agaiti', or 'repeatedly'. In con¬
nection with verbs, it has the same meaning whether it is
employed as a prefix or as a suffix. The purer and better
Kurdish, however, generally use it as a suffix. In the follow¬
ing words it may be considered as inseparable:^ e_y_llJ
(listin-a-wa) or ^^^"3 (wa-listin) 'to lick'; "j-^^J (rish-

an-a-wa) or .jlijoj (wa-rishan) 'to vomit' (lit. 'to spill re¬
peatedly') ; eîji (kirdin-a-wa) or J):>^ oj (wa-kirdin)
'to open' (lit. 'to do over again), etc. In the following words
it may be considered as separable: e^J yj- (khir bûn-a-wa)
'to assemble'; o^JiJi Aî (qisa kirdin-a-wa) 'to speak';
oyj y 3% (blati bûn-a-wa) 'to be scattered', etc.
The Personal Endings
196. The Kurdish verb is inflected by adding certain suf¬
fixes or endings to the different tense stems. These are called
'personal endings', because they indicate what person is act¬
ing or acted upon. These are two forms of personal endings
employed. The first is called the 'enclitic form', and the sec¬
ond the 'suffix pronoun form'.
197. The following is the enclitic form of personal end¬
ings which is employed in all moods and tenses of the 'First
Conjugation', and in the present and future tenses of the
'Second Conjugation'.
Singular Plural
L Person: ^ (i)m, I Ö: m, we
2. {_f i, thou O (J)n, you

3. (^ e;la ja(i)n, they
or o a, he, she, it |
Note.- Suffixed to nouns, adjectives or adverbs, these endings consti-

y-
tute the present tense of the verb 'to be". Ex. («-*^ (garm-(i)m) 'I
am warm'; S^J^ (sard-I) 'thou art cold'; eXli (blind-a) he, she
or it is tall'; tJJc^ (lera-in) 'we are here'; Qi^ (lawai-n) 'you or
they are there'.
198. In the 3rd person singular, (_g (e) and \ (a) are about
equally much employed. The imperative stem generally
shows which one to use. Examples : (Jy^, (bisiit-e) 'burn
thou !', ^Jy> (dasût-e) 'he, she, it burns' ; 4X) (bik-a) 'do
thou!': bio(dak-a) 'he, she, it does', etc. There are many
exceptions to this rule, however. Examples : oyj (bikaw-a)
'fall thou !, (jp i (dakaw-e) 'he, she, it falls'.
199 W^hen the 'encliric form' of personal endings is joined
to nouns, adjectives, or pronouns, the 3rd person singular is
always « (a) or4j(ya). The latter follows when the word
ends in a vowel. Examples : e_5\j_ (piaw-a) 'it is a man' ;
4/.^(garm-a) 'it is warm'; <0'^ (kie-ya) 'who is it?';

4) oj\ (awa-ya) 'it is he', or 'it is this one'.
200. In case the prepositional suffix 4 (a), or the suffix oy
(wa) is added to the 3rd person singular, the consonant Cj
(t) is inserted as a connective. Examples: i^j^ Ai.5 (de-
t-a share) 'he comes to the City'; o/Sii (de-t-a-wa) 'he
comes back', 'he returns'; ^J^^ (haya-t-i) 'he, she, it has'
(possesses); eyy\a>. (ha-tû-t-a-w.a) 'he has returned', etc.

VERBS 83
201. In the Mongur dialect (i) is very often employed for
(e), in the 3rd person singular, present tense. Example: ^y,^
(dab-i) for (dab-e) 'it will be', or 'it must be'. And in other
dialects, especially that of Sinna, we meet with the suffix ^
(tin). Examples: ^^0 i (daka-tin) 'he does'; ^^lo (be-tin)
'he may be'. The ending o (t)> sometimes heard, is bor¬
rowed from the New Persian.
202. These endings are also used objectively in all tenses
of the Passive Voice, and in the preterite tense of transitive
verbs, of which we shall hear more fully later,. Two or three
examples will suffice here: ^JJy> ^ (dakiizhre-m) 'I am be¬
ing (or will be) killed'; o'^-^-^r (kuzhraw-in) 'we have
been killed'; /^7 S cXi> (hal-(i)t-girt-in) 'thou didst carry us'.
203. The following is the suffix pronoun form of personal
endings, which is employed in the past tenses of the 'Second
Conjugation' only.
Singular Plural
1. Person: ^ (i)m, I ;jlo man, we
2. C- (i)t, thou O^ tan, or j (u) you
3. (_j Î, he, she, it ij\ yan, they
(See 163 and 165.)
204. In the preterite and perfect tenses, if the verb is used
alone, the personal ending is joined to the verb itself. Ex¬
ample: ö\p (kuti-yan) 'they said' ; '^\3i_p (kirdû-yan-a)
'they have done'. But when another word is employed in
connection with the verb, either subjectively or objectively,
the pronominal stlffix or personal ending is usually joined to

84
it. Examples: cS O^"^ ^± (piawakan-yan gut) 'the men

said'; ei ( j^\^ (kar-yan kirdûa) 'they have worked' (lit.
'they have done work').
205. In the imperfect tense, if the verb is used alone, the
personal ending is very seldom suffixed, but it is usually in¬
serted between the prefix i (da) and the verbal stem. Ex¬
amples: î (dakut-(i)ni) 'I was saying' (This form is

possible, but it is not best) ; cSiî (da-m-gut) 'I was say¬
ing'; cSö\> (da-yan-gut) 'they were saying', etc. When
another word is employed in connection with the verb, the
personal ending is usually joined to it. Examples:
cS > S3^^ (ba piawaka-m dagut) 'I was telling the

man'; ^ ^ ^"^ ^ ^^^ min-yan dagut) 'they were tell-
ing me'.
206. In the pluperfect tense, if the verb is used alone, the
personal endings are joined to the preterite pârticiple of the
auxiliary verb 'to be'. Examples: Cj^p (kut-(e)-bû-t)

'thou hadst said'; ö\)^ (kut-(e)-bû-yan) 'they had said',
etc. If another word is employed in connecrion with the
verb, the personal ending is usually joined to it. Examples:
^ çA^ j\ (au qisa-m kut-(e)-bû) 'I had spoken that

word' ; y i/ ö^j\^(kar-man kird-(e)-bû) 'we had worked'.
The Negative and Prohibitive Particle
207. In all present and future tenses, negarives are formed
by subsrituring '. (na)a contracted form of the negarive
particle 4; (na), or by subsrituting \> (na), for the prefixes
i (da) and '. (bi). *, (na) is a plain negative, and t (na) is

VERBS 85
an emphatic negarive. Examples: <^P (na-rirs-(i)-m) 'I
do not fear', or 'I shall not fear'; ^j\> (na-rirs-(i)-m) 'I will
not fear'; J^ yy^ (na-khwen-(i)-m) 'I do not read', or 'I shall
not read';^J-\J (na-khwen-(i)-m) 'I will not read'.
208. In the past tenses of intransitive verbs, the negative
particle 5 or l" is simply prefixed, and the personal endings
occupy their regular suffix position. Examples: ^L"^ (na-
tirsa-m) 'I feared not'; /^L-^'li (na-tirsa-m) 'I did not fear';
^y\^ (na-hatû-m), »yU\; (na-hatû-m) 'I have not come'.
In the latter case emphasis is laid on the word 'not'. In the
past tenses of transitive verbs, the negative particle > or t is
also simply prefixed, but the personal endings usually follow
immediately after. Examples: ^-Uj^' (na-khwend-(i)-m) 'I
did not read', is acceptable, but it is better to say X^y^
(na-m-khwend) ; /.JCj^-Jb (na-dakhwend(i)m) 'I was not
reading), is acceptable, but it is better to say OJîOv
(na-m-dakhwend). In the same manner ejXj_ji- jlj (na-
man-khwendija) 'we have not read', is better than juXj_^
(na-khwend-man), and y X^^y,- ^jLi (na-yan-khwend-(e)
bii) 'they had not read', is better than jV y_ Xj_^ (na-
khwend-(e) bii-yan).
209. In the simple imperative, 2nd person singular and
plural, the prohibitive particle .» (ma) is employed. Examples:
^^P" (ma-rirs-e) 'fear thou not!'; 4^^«/. (ma-khwen-a)
'read thou not!'; ry-_p> (ma-tirs-(i)n) 'fear ye not!'; (J^^f^
(ma-khwen-(i)n) 'read ye not!' But in the other persons of
the imperative, the negative particle J or t is employed. Ex-

amples: («-»^ ^ (ha na-tirs-(i)m) 'let me not fear!';
f^y^ \> (ba na-khwen-e) 'let him not read'; ÖT^J^ \^^^
na-tirs-in) 'let us not fear!'; ^j>^ \i (ba na-khwen-(i)n) 'let
them not read!'
210. In the case of 'composite verbs', the negative particle
is inserted between the separable prefix and the verb. Ex¬
amples: cy^33 (war-na-gr-(i)m) 'I do not receive', or 'I
shall not receive'; "yy^ jj\, jj (war-yan-na-girtua) 'they
have not received'; ^y Id*, (hal-na-gr-(i)m) 'I will not
carry'; y^y^ ö^ (hal-yan-na-girt-(e)-bii) 'they had not
carried'.
The Tenses of the Verb
211. There are six tenses, the present, future, imperfect,
preterite, perfect, and pluperfect. And in each tense there
are two numbers, singular and plural.
(1) The present tense indicates that the action is going on
at the present moment, while one is speaking.
(2) The future tense is missing in the inflection of the
Kurdish verb. The present and future tenses are usually
alike as to form, but confusion, nevertheless, seldom arises
as to which tense is meant, as usually some 'adverb of time'
is associated with the verb, revealing its future meaning.
(3) The imperfect tense indicates that an action was tak¬
ing place, but was not finished at a given moment. It also
denotes the duration or frequency of an action.
(4) The preterite tense indicates that an action took place
in the indefinite past, either a long time ago, or quite recently.

VERBS 87
(5) The perfect tense indicates that an action has taken
place and is completed quite recently.
(6) The pluperfect tense indicates that an action had taken
place and was finished in the past, usually quite long ago.
The Moods of the Verbs
212. The Kurdish verb has six moods: the infinitive, the
indicative, the subjunctive, the conditional, the optative, and
the imperative.
(1) The infinitive is both verbal and substantive in nature.
It may be declined like a noun, and takes suffixes, and occa¬
sionally has a plural.
(2) The indicative expresses a simple, absolute assertion.
(3) The subjunctive is generally employed when an 'in¬
tention' or a 'doubt' is to be expressed. The subjunctive sense
is very often empha.sized by employing one of the conjunctions
4XJj (ranga) *xii (dashkam), (t^-^ (bashkam), or
^y^_ (balki), which all mean 'perhaps', maybe'.
(4) The conditional states the condition on which another
action takes place, has taken place, or will take place. Usually
the conditional conjunction Ji 1 (agar) . 'if, is employed.
(5) The optative indicates washing or desiring. The
optative sense is emphasized by employing the conjunction
\»_;j (birya) 'would that,' and occasionally 43 jy- (khozga),
of thie same, meaning. The optative is very often used in¬
stead of the conditional, and the conditional instead of the
operative.
(6) The imperative is used to express commands, exhorta-

tions, and prohibitations.
The Accent of the Verb
213. The Kurdish verbs are very irregularly accentuated,
but the following may be considered as general rules.
(1) In the present and future tenses, the accent usually
falls on the final syllable, or on the personal endings.
(2) In the past tenses, the accent usually falls on the syl¬
lable which precedes the Copula.
(3) In the participles, the accent usually falls on the final
syllable of the participial stem. When a participle ends in
O , a connective vowel which is placed between it and
the Copula, usually takes the accent.
(4) In all forms where the prefix i (bi) is used, especially
in the Infinitive and Imperative, the accent is brought for¬
ward as far as possible, usually on the prefix itself.
(5) The negative particle ! or li , prefixed to any form of
the verb, and the prohibitive particle ^ of the Imperative,
usually take the accent.
CONJUGATIONS
214. There are two conjugations of the Kurdish verbs.
The First Conjugation, which is chiefly for intransitive verbs,
and the Second Conjugation, to which most of the transitive
verbs belong.
To conjugate a verb is to give all its voices, moods, tenses,
numbers, and persons in their proper order.
The First Conjugation
215. The common peculiarity of the first conjugation, or

VERBS 89
the conjugation of the intransitive verb is, that it employs
the first or enclitic form of personal endings in all its tenses.
And these endings are always directly suffixed to the various
tense stems.
Conjugation of the 'regular intransitive verb', o^y" (tirsan)
'to fear'
ACTIVE VOICE
Infinitive jLy (tirsan) Imperative ^^ (bi-tirs-e)
fear' 'fear thou !'
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
f^yi y\ (amin da-rirs-(i) fj^Ji A^\ (ama da-tirs-in)
we fear
m) I fear
^^yi y\ (atii da-tirs-i)

y^Ji /jl (ango da-tirs-(i)-
n) you fear
thou fearest
,":> jljl (awan da-tirs-

^ Ji i\ (au da-tirs-e) he,
(i)n) they fear
she, it fears
216. The present tense is based on the imperative stem.
By substituting the present tense prefix i (da), for the im¬
perative prefix > (bi), we have the 3rd person singular, pres¬
ent tense.
217. The same verb is sometimes employed with a finalfj
(e) to its stem. Examples: ^J> (da-rirse-m), ç^^J^

(da-tirse-i), ^J^y^ (da-tirse-), öt:::^J^ (da-tinse-in),
Or'J^ (da-tirse-n), Öy-J> (da-tirse-n).

218. The accompanying separate personal pronouns are
the most common, but the others, as jKaz) 'I', <.jl (ema)
'we', and oyj (ewa) or j^ (hiin) 'you', may be substituted
if desired. All separate personal pronouns, however, may be
omitted in the conjugation of the verbs, as the personal end¬
ings, excepting in the 2nd and 3rd person plural, prevent any
ambiguity in regard to person and number.
219. The dialects of Hakkari and adjacent districts em¬
ploy the Dental 't' as a final in the 3rd person singular of all
verbs, and employ the ending 'n' for all persons in the plural.
Some dialects, especially around Amadia, employ the 't' as a
final both in the 2nd and 3rd person singular and plural.
This is nearly identical with the New Persian suffix i(d),
which as a final is pronounced 't'.
220. The negative is formed by substituting the negative
particle î or \j for the prefix i (da), in all the persons, and
in both numbers. Examples : w._p |^|(amin na-tirs-(i)m)
'I fear not';(_^^j y I (atii na-rirs-i) 'thou fearest not';
(^^ j' (aii na-tirs-e) 'he, she, it fears not', etc.
Future Tense
221. The present tense, both positive and negative, is
employed for the future tense. Example : *> : ^y y\
(amin na-tirs-(i)m : da-ch-(i)m) 'I do (shall) not fear, I
shall go'.
The sense of futurity is very often clarified by employing
an adverb of time. Examples: î jy (zû da-ch-(i)m) 'I
shall soon go' ; ^j>.i jjj\ (aûrö da-ch-e) 'he will go to-day'.
VERBS 91
Interrogatively, the future indicative is expressed by the
present subjunctive, either by employing an interrogative tone
of voice, or by employing an interrogative pronoun, adverb,
or particle. Examples : (With interrogative tone of voice) :
ff^yi (bi-tirs-(i)m) 'shall I fear?'; o^fyi (bi-tirs-în)
'shall we fear?' (With interrogative pronoun): ij^yi ^y
(kie bi-tirs-e) 'who will fear?' *-»^ ^ a] (la chî bi-tirs-
(i)m) 'what shall I fear?' (With interrogative adverbs):
t^yi 3i (bo bi-tirs-(i)m) or çr-'y ijî'. (bö chî bi-tirs-
(i)m) 'why shall I fear?' ^ (J>^ (kange bi-tirs-(i)m)
'when shall I fear?' (With interrogative particle) : ^y. Sy
(are bi-tirs-(i)m) or ^y y^ (magar bi-tirs-(i)m) 'shall I
fear?'; 4J (jl ^y (bi-tirs-(i)m yan na) or a> j\j (t-xy SJ^
(are bi-tirs-(i)m yan na)' shall I fear or no?'.
Note. The separate personal pronouns are usually omitted except for
emphasis.
222. Prof. Bresin (p. 151) and Ferdinand Justi (p. 176)
attempt to form a distinct future tense by employing, as
auxiliary, the 3rd person singular of the future tense of the
verb 'to be', which \S(ji^(dah&) 'he, she, it will be'; but em¬
ployed as an auxiliary, in this way, (J^^ (dabe) does not
particularly indicate futurity, but 'necessity', as M. Augnste
Jaba correctly states in the sentence: 'insan hemû di be-
mjrin' (all men must die). In more complete forms the
same sentence would read thus; Oyi {J> y^ jLîl
(insan hamii dabe bi-mrin).

Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
ç^Ji (j-«! (amin da-tirsa- (ji^y^ <^1 (ama da-tirsa-in)
m) I was fear¬ we were fear¬
ing ing
<Û^. Jl (atii da-tirsa-î) (jU J:* SJ\ (ango da-tirsa-n)
thou wast fear¬ you were fear¬
ing ing
\j'Jii j\ (au da-tirsa-) he,

ij'^Ji öh^ (awan da-tirsa-
she, it was n) they were
fearing fearing
223. The imperfect tense is based on the infinitive stem.
By dropping the final ^j (n) of the infinitive, we have the pre¬
terite participle, and by prefixing :> (da) to the preterite par¬
ticiple, we have the 3rd person singular, imperfect tense.
224. The general characteristic of the imperfect tense of
all verbs is the employment of the present tense prefix i
(da) with the preterite stem, which combination indicates a
continuous past.
225. The 3rd person singular is the naked preterite parti¬
ciple prefixed by i (da), without any pronominal suffix or
personal ending.
2^6. The negative is formed by simply prefixing the neg¬
ative particle j or \j . Examples: c^L-JSi ^y^ (amin na-da-
tirsa-m) 'I was not fearing' ; (jL-JX y\ (atu na-da-tirsa-i)
'thou wast not fearing' ; L^jJ jl (aii na-da-tirsa-) 'he, she,
it was not fearing', etc.

VERBS 93
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
^\^J /y\ (amin tirsa-m) I (^L. J 4.,| (ama tirsa-in) we
feared feared
iS^-xy y\ (atii tirsa-i) thou öL.y ^l (angö tirsa-n)
feardest you feared
\^J jl (aii tirsa-) he, (jLy jljl (awan rirsa-n)
she, it feared they feared
227. The preterite tense is based on the infinitive stem. By
dropping the final j (n) of the infinitive, we have the preterite
parriciple, which is identical with the 3rd person singular,
preterite tense.
228. The general characteristic of the preterite tense of all
verbs is the employment of the naked preterite participle,
without any prefix or suffix except the personal endings, and
even that is omitted in the 3rd person singular.
229. The negative is formed by simply prefixing the neg¬
ative particle J or li . Examples : ^'^y y°^ (amm-na-tirsa-
m) 'I feared not'; ^\^y y\ (atu na-tirsa-i) 'thou feardest
not'; L.^ jl (au na-tirsa-) 'he, she, it feared not', etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
pL._J ^1 (amin tirsau-m) ^ jUy 4.1 (ama tirsaw-in
I have feared we
we have
(_$jUy y\ (atii tirsaw-i) feared
thou hast
jjLy ^1 (ango tirsaû-n)
feared you have

o^y jl (ati tirsaw-a) he, feared
she, it has ö^y O^^ (awan tirsaii-n)
feared they have
feared
230. The perfect tense is based on the infinitive, the same
as the imperfect and the preterite. By dropping the final Ö (n)
of the infinitive and suffixing j(ii), we have the perfect par¬
ticiple stem.
231. The general characteristic of the perfect tense of all
verbs is the vowel-suffix j (û), which is added to the pre¬
terite participle stem.
232. In the 3rd person singular, the present tense suffix or
personal ending o (a) or <i(ya) is employed. And when the
preposirional suffix 4 (a) 'to' or 'toward', or the separable
suffix ej (wa) 'again', denoting 'repeated action', is added to
this ending, the connective Dental O (t) is inserted be¬
tween them, and sometimes the j (û) is pronounced, (ö). Ex¬
ample: e^jjyU (hatii-t-a-wa) 'he, she, it has returned' (lit.

' has come again').
233. Most Kurdish dialects show a weakness as to disrinct
perfect forms. The dialects of Hakkari and adjacent dis¬
tricts form the perfect tense of intransitive verbs by simply
adding 4 (a) to the preterite tense. Examples: 4*L J jl
(az tirsa-m-a), (Û^ y (tû tirsa-i-), ^^j, j| (au tirsa-ya),
Ai\^J ^\ (am tirsa-n-a), 4;L._y" ö.>* (hûn tirsa-n-a),

4JU_/ jlj (wan tirsa-n-a). The 2nd person singular usu¬
ally remains identical with the preterite tense.
VERBS 95
234. The perfect tense forms in Kurdish, however, are quite
clear and distinct. The only difficulty met with is, to dis¬
tinguish between the 3rd person singular, perfect tense, and
the 3rd person singular, preterite tense, when the latter
employs the separable suffix ej (wa) 'again', denoting 're¬
peated action'. Examples: oj\^J j\ (au tirsaw-a) 'he has
feared', ajL-J j\ (au tirsa-a-wa) 'he feared again', or 'he
feared repeatedly' ; e^J I* j\ (ail hatii-a) 'he has come',
e^^lfc j\ (au hat-a-wa) 'he returned', or^ 'he came again';
ojll-l* _jl (au halistaw-a) 'he has risen', ejllJ* j)\(aû halista-
a-wa) 'he rose again'.
ative particle j or 1» . Examples ^3^y ^j- (amin na-tirsaû-
m) 'I have not feared'; (Jj\->-y y\ (atu na-tirsaw-i) 'thou
hast not feared'; o_}\^y jl (au na-tirsaw-a) 'he, she, it has
not feared'.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
^y {j-y ^y>\ (amin tirsa y_y \^y ,4«! (ama tirsa bii-
bû-m) I had în) we had
feared feared
iSy Uy y\ (atii tirsa bii- oy L-J ^Kangö tirsa
i) thou bii-n) you
hadst feared had feared
y \^J j\ (au tirsa bii-) oy Lj Obi (^^^^ ^^^^

he, she, it bû-n) they
had feared had feared

236. The pluperfect tense is formed by employing the
preterite participle stem of the verb, with the preterite parti¬
ciple stem of the auxiliary verb 'to be'.
237. The negative is formed by simply prefixing the negative
particle î or Ij to the preterite participle stem of the verb.
Examples : çy ^y ^y=\ (amin na-tirsa bû-m) 'I had not
feared'; (Jy [j-y y\ (atu na-tirsa bû-i) 'thou hadst not
feared' ; y V»y^ <)\ (aii-na-tirsa bii-) 'he, she, it had not
feared', etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
(^^y y\ (amin bi-tirs-(i) Q-xy Aj\ (ama bi-tirs-in)
m) I may fear we may fear
cyy'. y^ (^^^ bi-tirs-i) ryy ^X.il (ango bi-tirs-(i)
thou mayest n) you may
fear fear
(j^y J' (aii bi-tirs-e) he, ^y jljl (awan bi-rirs-(i)
she, it may n) they may
fear fear
238. The present tense, subjunctive, is based on the impera¬
tive stem. The simple imperative, or 2nd. person singular, is
often identical with the 3rd. person singular, present subjunc¬
tive.
239. The subjunctive mood is usually employed after all
conjunctions, excepting the 'copulative' and 'disjunctive' con¬
junctions. To strengthen the general 'intentional' or 'dubi-

VERBS 97
tive' sense of the subjunctive mood, one of the conjunctions
<^>j (ranga), (»>^ (bashkam), pî (dashkam), or ^yXi
(balki), which all mean 'perhaps', is usually employed.
240. Conditional sentences are formed by employing one of
the conditional conjunctions, especially S I (agar) 'if. Exam¬
ples : f>~^y (j^'^y^ (agar amin bi-tirs-(i)m) 'if I fear', or "if
I should fear'; ^y Ji i^\(agar atii bi-tirs-i) 'if thou fearest',

or 'if thou shouldest fear';^,^ j|^l(agar aii bi-tirs-e) 'if
he fears', or 'if he should fear', etc.
241. Conclusive sentences are formed by employing one of
the conjunctions 4i (ka), lla (hata), or _p bb(hatakii), which
all mean 'that', 'so that', 'in order that'. Examples : j^-^^j (j*' 45
(ka amin bi-tirs-(i)ni),*.^^ ^^l ll4>(hata amin bi-tii;s-(i)m),
or ftr^yiy^] p \:jt(hataki:i amin bi-tirs-(i)m) 'that, so that, or in
order that I may fear', etc.
242. Necessitative sentences are formed by employing the
auxiliary jjO (dabe) 'nnisf, inserted between the verb and the
pronoun, in case the latter is employed. Examples: ^y i^.^
(dabe bi-tirs-(i)m), or f^y ^J> ^>'l (amin dabe bi-tirs-(i)m)
'I must fear', etc.
243. The employment of the conjunction 45 (ka) with the
present subjunctive, very often takes the place of the infinitive.
Examples:- l5sj 40 j»J ^*(hat-(i)m ka bi-gar(i)m) 'I came to
travel'; /"^ 45 J"U(hat-(i)m ka bi-mr-(i)m' 'I came to die'.
244. In interrogative sentences, the present subjunctive is
used in a future sense. (See 220.)
245. The negative form of the present subjunctive is identi-

eal with the negative of the present indicative. (See 219.)
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
_j x^y y\ (amin tirsa b-(i)m) jô VkJ 4«I (ama tirsa b-in)
I may have feared we may have feared
^j U_y y\ (atii tirsa b-i) y_ Ly" _y5jl(angö tirsa b-(i)n)
thou mayest have feared you may have feared
i U J jl (au tirsa b-e) \j,J ^jljKawan tirsa b-(i)n)
he, she, it may have feared they may have feared
246. The perfect subjunctive is formed by employing the
present subjunctive of the auxiliary verb 'to be', with the
preterite participle.
247. The same conjunctions that are employed with the
present tense, are also employed with this tense.
248. The negative is formed by simply prefixing the nega¬
tive particle J or \j to the preterite participle stem. Ex¬
ample:!^ ^y (j^l(amin na-tirsa bi-(i)m) 'I may not have
feared', etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
^y U^ ^ I (amin tirsa bii b- /.o y U J 4.«|(ama tirsa bii
(i)m) I might have feared b-in) we might have feared
(_<f f. ^J y (atii tirsa bu b-i) jV y ^ y" *Xi l(angö tirsa bû-b-

thou mightest have feared (i)n) you might have feared
j_jj y L J j\ (an tirsa bu b-e) ^ y Kjty ^jl jl(awan tirsa bu b-
he, she, it might have feared (i)n) they might have feared
249. The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by employing

VERBS 99
the present subjunctive of the verb 'to be', with the pluperfect
indicative stem.
250. The same conjunctions that are employed with the
present and perfect subjunctive, are also used with this tense.
251. The negative is formed by prefixing the negative par¬
ticle j or I) , to the preterite participle stem. Example:
1^ _jjL j;^^l(a-min nartirsa bti b-(i)m) 'I might not have
feared', etc.
CONDITIONAL MOOD
252. For the 'present tense' of the 'conditional mood', the
Kurdish employs the 'present subjunctive' (See 239.) And
the clause containing the conclusion, which is called the 'apo-
dosis', is put in the present indicative. Example :(«-^__;Ij^ I _P I
*jJiLb (agar amin bi-tirs-(i)m, halde-m) 'If I fear, I shall
run' or 'If I should fear, I would run'.
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
p-\i l> p jVol (amin bi-tirsa rj\ L^ 4/.I (ama bi-tirsa
ba-m) If I feared ba-in) if we feared
(j\i \~»y y\ (atii bi-tirsa ö\ \^y _^; I (ango bi-tirsa
ba-î) if thou feardest ba-n) if you feared
\) \j- y _jl (aii bi-tirsa jl \^y jljKawan bi-rirsa
ba-) if he, she, it feared ba-n) if they feared
253. This tense also has a perfect sense. Examples:
X L.^ y\^$agax amin bi-rirsa ba-m) 'if I should have
feared'; ^^\ \^p y\ f\ (agar atu bi-rirsa ba-i) 'if thou

shouldest have feared' , \ \j-y jl y 1 (agar au bi-tirsa ba-)
'if he, she, it should have feared', etc.
254. The 'apodosis', or clause containing the conclusion,
is put in the imperfect indicative. Example iL-y., ^\Jb\
Ûjd* (»l) (agar amin bi-tirsa ba-m, hal-da-hat-(i)m) 'if I
feared (should have feared) I would have fled'.
255. The prefix > (bi) may be omitted, without altering
the meaning; but it is more perfect Kurdish to employ it.
Examples: We very often hear, ç\ ^y ^y\ _p\ (agar amin
tirsa ba-m), but it is better to say, ^\ \^y (j*\ y I (agar
amin bi-tirsa ba-m). This rule holds good in all the tenses
of the conditional and optative moods.
particle J or \j for the prefix \ (bi). Example:
( L. Jj '^l^Kagar amin na-tirsa ba-m) 'if I feared not',
or 'if I should not have feared', etc.
Perfect or Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
Ai y ^y Cy\ (amin bi-tir- jîl y \^y 4.«! (ama bi-tirsa
%a. $\x ba-m) if I had feared bii ba-in) if we had feared
(_$\) y U^ y I (atii bi-tirsa o\> y \^y _jX;l(angö bi-tir¬
bii ba-i) if thou hadst feared sa bii ba-n) if you had feared
\ y. ^J^. 3^ (aû bi-tirsa ö\ y \^y jljKawan bi-tir¬
bû ba-) if he, she, it had feared sa bii ba-n) if they had feared
257. This tense has also a perfect sense. Examples: :: _^

.fl
(»1 jj L> p ^1 (agar amin bi-tirsa bu ba-m) 'if I should
have feared'; (^l y L^ Jl y I (agar atu bi-tirsa bii ba-î) 'if
thou shouldest have feared', etc.

VERBS 101
258. The 'apodosis', or clause containing the conclusion,
after this tense, is put in the imperfect indicative, the same
as after the preterite conditional. Examples : y\ y \

J^lftuU : A y ^y (agar amin bi-tirsa bii ba-m, hal-da-hat-
(i)m) 'if I had (should have) feared, I would have fled'.
259. Necessitative conditional sentences are formed, in the
preterite, perfect, and pluperfect conditional, by employing
the auxiliary \ii (daba) 'ought', which is the conditional
form of î (dabe) 'must'. Examples: A \-xy \^ (y^ (amin
daba bi-tirsa ba-m), or A^ y ^y \^ (y^ (amin daba bi-

tirsa bu ba-m) 'I ought to have feared'; .(^l ^y \> y^
(atu daba bi-tirsa ba-i), or ^s\ y U^ \i y\ (atu daba bi-
tirsa bii ba-i) 'thou oughtest to have feared', etc.
particle î or lî for the prefix j (bi). Examples: \^yiy\ji\

oyi iJU- : A _jj fagar amin na-tirsa bu ba-m, chak da-bti)'if I
had not feared, it would have been good' ; \ y \^y y y I

AoyX (ji-l-l : (agar aii na-tirsa bu ba-, amin-isli na-da-tirâ-
m) 'if he had not feared, I would not have feared either'.
OPTATIVE MOOD
Preterite or Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
4)UU^ (y\ (amin bi-tir- 4) b \^y aA (ama bi-tir-
sa-m-aya) would that I feared sa-in-aya) would that we
Ai\i\j>y y\ (atii bi-tirsa- feared
i-aya) would that thou

4) \) U^ j5vJ I (ango bi-tir¬
feardest
sa- (i)n-aya) would that
4)L'^ jl (aii bi-tirsa- you feared
ya) would that he, she, it A}\i\j'y jljl (awan bi-tir¬
feared sa- (i)n-aya) would that
they feared
261. The conjunction l y (birya) 'would that', and occa¬
sionally -6 }J- (khozga), of about the same meaning, are
usually employed before the optative. Examples: l j
4jiUU'^ y\ (birya amin bi-tirsa-m-aya) 'would that I feared';
4)ljUip 4«! \y (birya ama bi-tirsa-in-aya) 'would that
we feared', etc.
particle J or li for the prefix ; (bi). Example: ^j^l \iy
AAaXj-y (birya amin na-tirsa-m-aya) 'would that I had not
feared', etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
4jUl)L'JJ -^1 (amin bi-tir- 4jiIj1jL.^ 4/.I (ama bi-tir
sa ba-m-aya) would that I sa ba-in-aya) would that
had feared we had feared
4«l\)L<_^ y\ (atii bi-tirsa 4)\;l)L^ ^'Uangö bi-tir¬
ba-i-aya) would that thou sa ba-n-aya) would that
hadst feared you had feared
■^- . ^ jl (aii bi-tirsa 4) \j I) ^y jl ji (awan bi-tir¬
ba-ya) would that he, she, sa ba-n-aya) would that
it had feared they had feared
particle î or l) for the prefix .' (bi). Examples : <> ly

VERBS 103
4)Ul)U__;:; (birya amin na-tirsa ba-m-aya) 'would that I had
not feared'; A,\i\j'y j\ \y (birya au na-tirsa ba-ya) 'would
that he had not feared', etc.
264. The conditional mood is very often employed instead
of the optative, by using the conjunction \y (birya) with it,
and the optative is very often employed instead of the con¬
ditional, by using the conjunction p\ (agar) with it. Ex-
aples : We very often hear ^^^^y <y^ \y (hJO'a amin bi-

tirsa ba-m), which is the optative conjunction employed with
the conditional form of the verb, and we often hear
4)UlL_;j y\ J^\ (.agar amin bi-tirsa ba-m-aya), which is
the conditional conjunction emplo\ed with the optative form
of the verb.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
f^y t>.l I (ba amin bi-tirs- y^^y ^^ \ (ba ama bi-tirs-

(i)m) let me fear! in) let us fear!
^y y\ (atu bi-tirs-e) O:^/-". ^'' (^"§^° ^'"^'''^'

fear thou! . (i)n)fearye!
^yy j\ I (ba au bi-tirs-e) yy ûb^ \ (ha awan bi-tirs-
let him, her, it fear ! (i)n) let them fear!
265. The negative is formed by prefixing the prohibitive
particle .» (ma) to the 2nd person singular and plural, and

by prefixing the negative particle ] to the others. Examples :
j^^ (ma-tirs-e) 'fear thou not!' y_y> (ma-tirs-(i)n)
fear ye not! ^j:, \ (ba na-tirs-(i)m) let me not fear!
^:->-y\ (ba na-tirs-in) let us not fear ! ^yy \ (ba na-

104 A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR^
tirs-e) 'let him, her, it not fear!' ^_^ \ (ba na-tirs-(i)n)
'let them not fear!'
266. The 1st and 3rd persons, singular and plural,, of the
imperative, are identical with the present subjunctive, prefixed
by the exhortative particle l> (ba) 'let'.
PARTICIPLES
267. A parriciple, as its name implies, is a word that usually
participates or partakes boh of the nature of a verb and an
adjective, and sometimes it is even used as a noun, in which
case it is declinable.
Present Participle
tSy ^y (tirs-a-nûk)
'fearing'
268. The present participle has no distinct form in Kurd¬
ish, but it is occasionally expressed by combining a sub¬
stantive with the naked present tense stem of the verb. Ex¬
amples : 6y A^} ij^ (kicheki tirs-a-nûk) 'a fearing

giri'; ^ jlj ^^_jL (piaweki raû-kar) 'a hunting man';
y' yj LT^-^^r (Piaweki ntiezh-kar) 'a praying man';
y)C^j>.iJ>^_jp(k\iYtk\ hurmat-gir) 'an honoring (obeying)
boy'; ^jiAj"__,^ ^^^XJLc-j (ra'yateki ghairat-kesh) 'a zealous

citizen' (lit, 'a zeal-drawing citizen').
Preterite Participle
Uy (tirsa)
'feared'
269. The preterite parriciple has already often been re¬
ferred to. It forms the basis for all the past tenses, but it can-
VERBS 105
not stand alone and be used adjectively.
Perfect Participle
jLy (tirsaii)
'feared'
270. The perfect participle is usually employed adjectively.
Examples: jl^J- ^Xuli (qabeki shikaii) 'a broken dish';
jliJl5 , -Xj 1j (qabeki qualshati) or ^~^ (< ^ (qabeki qal-
shiii) 'a cracked dish'; jlji L. (jilli dirrati) 'torn clothes';
j\iy (JlJ (nani sûtaii) 'burnt bread'; 3^3y {^y (göshtî
birzhaû) 'roasted meat' ; _j\;.jj Js.JU (maleki riikhaii) 'a ruined
house' ;_}Uy ^ tirsaii) 'a feared horse'.
Verbal Noun
O^y (tirsan)
'fearing'
(The act of fearing)
271. VOCABULARY
^J> (dabe Ai\i 1^ (ai daya) 0 mother!
must, ought to L (ba) let
iy.Xi\ (amin-ish) I also ,jjjl (aii-rö) to-day
,jLj,> (disan) again /j\; (nan) bread
(j\)"j^ (siitan) burnt (j:^y (gosht) meat
jij J (birzhaii) roasted i_jlj (qab) dish
EXERCISE V
I am fearing. I do not fear. Do you fear? You must not
fear. If you fear, I shall fear also. If you do not fear, I
shall not fear either. I may fear. I may not fear. I ought
to fear. She had not feared. I ought not to fear. I ought

to have feared. I ought not to have feared. Let us not
fear. Who does not fear? Fear ye! Who fears that man?
He is a good man. This is an easy ( ö^^'ha-san') lesson.
I am afraid it will rain ( (Sj'î 'da-bar-e). O boys! don't go
( (f^ 'ma-ch-(i)n) far ( J3^ 'dm), it may rain. It has not
rained to-day. Let us go! It has rained to-day, and I fear
it will rain again. Walking ö'^ 'garan') is not good. If it
does not rain, we will walk. They may have feared. They
might have feared. If you had feared, it would have been
( y> 'da-bû') better. Would that I feared. Would that he
had not feared. You ought to have feared. I will return
( o^-*j^ ,> 'da-gare-m-a-wa') home (to the house). Burnt
bread it good. Roasted meat is better. O mother! the girl
broke ( \^ 'shika') that dish. This lesson is not difficult

( 0*9-3 'zahmat').
272. Synopsis Of An Irregular Intransitive Verb
Cy ^* (hatin) 'to come'
Note. (See 192, 2.)
ACTIVE VOICE
Infinitive ^yU (hatin) Imperative ^ (b-e) or ejj
to come'l (war-a) come thou !
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
^? Cy^ (amin de-m) J ^_,> ^^\ (ama de-in)
I come, etc. I we come, etc.

Note.The future is the same as the present.
VERBS 107
Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
pj\Ai y\ (amin da-hat- ^j\*i <ul (ama da-hat-in)
(i)m) I was coming, etc. , we were coming, etc.
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
-j"U y\ (amin hat-(i)m) ^\» a^\ (ama hat-in)
I came, etc. we came, etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
/» JU y,\ (amin hatu-m) oi/^ '^^ (^™^ hatû-in)

I have come, etc. ' we have come, etc.
Note. (See 231.)
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
^y oIa ^yl(amin hat-(e) j>:^ 0\* 4-1 (ama hat- (e)
bli-m) I had come, etc. bii-in) we had come, etc.
Note. When the preterite participle stem ends iii O (t) or i (d), an
unwritten connective vowel (e) or (i; is employed between it and the
auxiliary, and the two may be written separately, as above, or connected.
Example : M^ 1* 013^'
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
j^ y\ (amin be-m) ^^ 4*1 (ama be-in)
I may come, etc. we may come, etc.

Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
j»J Ol* y\ (amin hat-(e) b- ^;,o C«U 4^1 (ama hat-(e) b-

(i)m I may have come, etc. in) we may have come, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
rf 3^ *^^ ^>-l(amin hat-(e) ^ô y oU 4.»l (ama hat-(e) bu

bii b-(i)m) b-in)
I might have come, etc. we might have come, etc^
CONDITIONAL MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
^\> ol^ y\ (amin bi-hat- (jl\ cAji 4.0 1 (ama bi-hat-

(e) ba-m) (e) ba-in)
If I came, or if we came, or
if I should have come, etc. if we should have come, etc.
Singular Plural
P y Olfj y\ (amin bi-hat- (Jl\yCj\(J 4<l(ama bi-hat-

(e) bii ba-m) (e) bii ba-in)
if I had come, or if we had coine, or
if I should have come, etc. if we should have come, etc.
OPTATIVE MOOD
Preterite or Perfect Tense.
Singular Plural
o*^ (amin bi-hat- I AjLtIjj 4.,| (ama bi-hat-in-

(i)m-aya) ' aya)
VERBS 109
would that I came, etc. | would that we came, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
4)Ulj\^ y\ (amin bi-hat- 4) blJ l(j aA (ama bi-hat-
(e) -ba-in-aya)
(e) -ba-m-aya)
would that I had come, etc would that we had come, etc.
IMPER.A.TIVE MOOD
Singular (2nd pers.) Plural (2nd pers.)
j_j> y\ (atii b-e) or .y Xil (ango be-n) or

' y
"33 y^ (atu war-a) ÖJJ y>^!l(angö war-(i)n)
come ye!
come thou !
PARTICIPLES
Present Participle
(none)
Preterite Participle
OU (hat)
'came'
Perfect Participle
y\* (hatû)
'come'
Note.-This is very seldom used adjectively.'
Verbal Noun
^\a, (hatin)
'coming'
(The act of coming)

no A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR
273, VOCABULARY
jPsJLj (bashkam) perhaps jji (din) far
1^ (bra) brother (jj (rei) road
\j>- (kharap) bad jli (shar) city
EXERCISE VI
I come. He does not come. We shall come. They will not
come. I was coming. She was not coming. They were com¬
ing. Thou earnest. We did not come. You came. He did
not come to-day. Perhaps he will come to-morrow ( (^y^~P
sibhaine). I fear that he will not come. He must come.
You ought to come too (also). They may come to-day, or
( ö|i yan) they may come to-morrow. If he comes, she will
come also. I have come very far. Have you come very far?
He may have come home (to the house). We had come home.
You had come home. You had not come home. O boys,
come! Let us come! Let them not come! I fear that he may
not come. He might have come. They may have come.
You might have come. I ought to have come. They ought
to have come too. If I come, will you fear? No, ( y^
na-kher) don't fear if I come. My brother will come with me
( j^ .5 dagal-(i)m). If I should have come home, the boys
would have feared. If it had rained, the roads would have
been bad. Would that he came to-day. Would that I had
come sooner ( Jjj zijtir). Wôuld that it had not rained.
When will you come to the city? Your coming is very neces¬
sary ( 4.«3V lazim-a). O, that you would come to-day.

VERBS 111
274. Conjugation of the Irregular Intransative Auxiliary
verb
oy (btin) 'to be', or 'to become'.
ACTIVE VOICE
Infinitive oy (hiin) to be Infinitive oy (hiin)
Imperative 4j (ba) be thou! to become
Imperative 4o (bi-ba)
become thou!
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Singular
^\ (amin-(i)m) I am î y\ (amin da-b-(i)m)
Sy^ (atti-i) thou art I become
4)jl (awa-ya) he, she, it is î y\ (atti da-b-i)
thou becomest
Ji jl (aii da-b-e)
he, she, it becomes
Plural Plural
0^\ (ama-in) we are ^ 4«1 (ama da-b-in)
ij^l(angö-n) you are we become
jîljl (awan-(i)n) they are (ji:> j>J\ (ango da-b-(i)n)
you become
yi öb^ (awan da-b-(i)n)
they become
275. The adverb of time, 11-jj1 (awista) 'now', is often
employed with the above form of the verb 'to become', to de¬
note its present tense, as it otherwise has a future sense. Ex-

amples: *j.> iLjjI (awista da-b-(i)m) 'now I become',
' ^î t-jjl (awista da-b-i) 'now thou becomest', ^ji U
(awista da-b-e) 'now he, she, it becomes', etc.
276. The above form of the verb 'to be' is called the suf¬
fix form. There is also an independent or more emphatic form
of the verb 'to be', denoting 'existence'. It is only found in
two tenses, the present and the preterite, and it has no indi¬
vidual negative forms. The present tense is conjugated thus:
Singular Plural
(^ ^l(amin ha-m) -â cLol (ama ha-in)
I am (I exist) we are (we exist)
^_jA yl(atii ha-i) thou art ^îi jXJ!(angö ha-n) you are
4^ jKaii ha-ya) he, she, it is (j|_jl(awan ha-n) they are
277. The 3rd person singular, or a^ (ha-ya), when not
connected with the personal pronoun jl (aii), signifies 'there
is', or 'there exists', and the 3rd person plural, or â (ha-n),
when not connected with the pronoun ^jl_jl (awan), signifies
'there are'. Example . 4»a J\) jjj (zor nan ha-ya) 'there is
much bread' ;^4, ^S d^\(E,a\ak kas ha-n)' there are many
persons', etc.
Note. As to the reason why the 3rd. person singular ends in I (a)
or "^(ya), and not in(_5(e) or o (a), as the verbs otherwise usually do,
see 198. Also notice that it is the same when appended to iiouns or ad¬
jectives.
Present Tense, negatively
Singular Singular
pt* O^' (amin ni-m) I am not n^ y\ (amin na-b-(i)m)
(J y^ (atii n-i) thou art not I do not become

VERBS 113
40 J I (aii ni-ya) ^ y\ (atii na-b-i)
he, she, it is not thou dost not become
^ j\ (au na-b-e)
he, she, it does not become
Plural Plural
/j»J 4.0I (ama ni-in) 4^1 (ama na-b-in)
we are not we do not become
^ _jXJ I (ango ni-n) ö^ _j5C'l(angöna-b-(i)n)
you are not you do not become
^ jljl (awan ni-n) ^ jjljKawan na-b-(i)n)
they are not they do not become
278 Some dialects unnecessarily use a double form of the
negative Examples: j»lJjl (az ni-n-(i)m) 'I am not';
^ y (tû ni-n-i) 'thou are not'; 4JLJ jl (aii ni-n-a) 'he,
she, it is not', etc.
Future Tense
Singular
î y\ (amin da-b-(i)m) I shall be, or I shall become
ijl^ y\ (atij da-b-i) thou wilt be, or thou wilt become
jii jl (ati da-b-e) he, she, it will be', or will become
Plural
y.ii aJ (ama da-b-in) we shall be, or we shall become
^;;0 ^l(angö da-b-(i)n) you will be, or you will become

OJ^ 0^3^ (awan da-b-(i)n) they will be, or they will become
Future Tense, negatively,
particle 5 or lî for the prefix :> (da), which is identical

with the negative of the present tense of 'to become'. Ex¬
amples: A-J (j^l(amin na-b-(i)m) 'I shall not be', or 'I shall
not become' , ^^ y\ (atu na-b-i) 'thou wilt not be', or 'thou
wilt not become'; J jl (aii na-b-e) 'he, she, it will not be',
or 'he, she, it will not become', etc.
Imperfect Tense
Singular
^yi /j^|(amin da-bii-m) I was being, becoming,' used
to be
Sy^ J I (atii da-bii-i) thou wast being, becoming, used
to be
yi ji\ (au da-bû) he, she, it was being, becoming, used
to be
Plural
öiy^ "^l (ama da-bii-in) we were being, becoming, used
to be
oyi _jXJ I (ango da-bû-n) you were being, becoming, used
to be
oyi ijljl (awan da-bii-n) they were being, becoming, used
to be
Imperfect Tense, negatively
ative particle i or \; . . Example çyX ^\ (amin na-da-
bu-m) 'I was not being', *I was not becoming', or 'I did not
use to be', etc.

VERBS 115
Preterite Tense
Singular
^y y\ (amin bii-m) I was, or I become
(_$ J y\ (atu bli-i) thou wast, or thou becamest
y j\ (au hû-) he, she, it was, or he, she, it became
Plural
.y y 4»1 (ama bii-in) we were, or we became
oy isJKangö bû-n) you were, or you became
oy u'jl (awan bû-n) they were, or they become
281 The preterite tense of the verb 'to be', when employed
as an auxiliary with transitive verbs, takes the 'suffix pro¬
nouns' as personal ending. Examples py , Cjy > Sy
O^y , ö^y > ö'^y "^his explanation belongs under
transitive verbs, btit to make the point clearer, it is men¬
tioned here where comparison is near.
282. There is a more emphatic form of the preterite, de¬
noting 'existence'. (See 276.) It is conjugated thus :
Singular
^yt y\ (amin ha-bû-m) I was, or I ex'isted
(^^» y\ (atu ha-bû-i) thou wast, or thou didst exist
y^ 3\ (au ha-bû-) he, she, it was, or he, she, it existed
Plural
j,yA aJ\ (ama ha-bû-în) we were, or we existed
OyA _^ I (ango ha-bû-n) you were, or you existed

öy^ ûljKawan ha-bû-n) they were, or they existed
Preterite Tense, negatively
283. The negative is formed by simply prefixing î or \; ,

or by substituting them for the prefix a (ha). Example:
fi^yj y>\ (amin na-bû-m) 'I was not', 'I did not become', or 'I
did not exist', etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular
çjy fy>\ (amin bii-w-(i)m) I have been, or I have become
S3y. y^ (^tû bii-w-i) thou hast been, or thou hast become
ejy j\ (au bii-wa) he, she, it has been, or he, she, it has
become
Plural
Öi3y. "*-*' (ama bii-w-in) we have been, or we have become
Ojy Sj\ (ango bti-w-(i)n) you have been, or you have be¬
come
Ö3y ö\j\(^'^^^ bti-w-(i)n) they have been, or they have
become
Perfect Tense, negatively
ative particle j or \j . Examples. "3^ y^ (amin na-bii-w-
(i)m) 'I have not been', S3y y^ (atii na-bû-w-i) 'thou hast
not been' , ejy jl (aii na-bii-w-a) 'he, she, it has not been', etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular
fi'yy y\ (amin bii bii-m I had been, or I had become
ijyy y\ (atii bii bii-i) thou hadst been, or thou hadst be¬
come
yy. jl (aii bu bii-) he, she, it had been, or he, she, it had
become
VERBS 117
Plural
^yyy 4*1 (ama bû bû-in) we had been, or we had become
^y y ^\ (ango bu bû-n) you had been, or you had become

oy y 0^3^ (awan bu bû-n) they had been, or they had be¬
come
285. The pluperfect tense is sometimes written more con¬
tracted. Examples: ç yj (hû-hû-m) , ^y^ (bu-bû-i, y> (bu-
bû-), iy_yJ (bu-bû-in), öy. (buvbû-n), öyf. (bu-bu-n).
Pluperfect Tense, negatively
ative particle ) or l) . Examples : çy y y^ (amin na-bû

bû-m) or çyj y\ (amin na-bu-bû-m) 'I had not been', or 'I
had not become', etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular
Singular
^^ jyl(aminbi-b-(i)m)
^ ^|(aminb-(i)m)
I may become
I may be
^ yl (atu bi-b-i)
^ y\ (atu b-i)
thou mayest become
thou mayest be
.^ j\ (au bi-b-e)
Jl j\ (au b-e)
he, she, it may become
he, she, it may be
Plural
Plural
^^ Axl (ama bi-b-in)
j <ij[ (ama b-in)
we may become
we may be
y, _^l(angöbi-b-(i)n)
^^ _j5j1 (angöb-(i)n)
you may become
you may be
(jJ jlj' (awan b-(i)n) ^ô ö^jUawan bi-b-(i)n)
they may be they may become
287. All the tenses of the subjunctive mood usually employ
one of the conjunctions a\^j (ranga), j,5JL) (bashkam),
l»JOi dashkam), or ^SSj (balki), which all mean 'perhaps',
to emphasize the 'intentional' or 'dubitive' sense. Examples:

t f
l»j y>) A\jj (ranga amin b-(i)m) 'I may be' (lit. 'perhaps I
may be') (_jj y\ 4Xij (ranga atii b-i) 'thou mayest be' (lit.
'perhaps thou mayest be'), etc.
288. Conditional sentences are formed by employing the
conjunction y | (agar) 'if. Examples : j iJU y\ y\
»ii y 4) LjJ^^JD (agar atii chak b-i, katebeki ba tii dadam)
'if you (sing.) be good, I shall give you a book'; y |
^y ^1 ^, e^J ^'l (agar ango lera b-(i)n, amin na-
tirs-(i)m) 'if you be here, I shall not fear', etc.
289. Conclusive clauses are usually introduced by one of
the conjunction 43 (ka), ll* hata), or^) bb (hatakii), which
all mean 'that', so that', 'in order that'. Examples
j»j ^^1 45 ^li ^ (kie dal-len ka amin b-(i)m) 'who do they
say that I may be?'; (^ <^=>-j p \Ia oyda ^ jXi> jl (aii

sanirakai halgr-a hatakii rahat b-i) 'take this pillow so that
you (sing) may be comfortable'.
290. Necessitative sentences are formed by employing the
auxiliary ji (dabe) 'must'. Examples: j^ ojŞ ji jljl
(awan dabe lera b-(i)n) 'they must be here'; j Ij ji (dabe
wa be) 'it must be so'.
291. When employed with the conjunction 4J (ka), the

VERBS 119
present subjunctive very often serves as an infinitive. Ex¬
amples: ffLyi 43 |»j\* y^ (amin hat-(i)m ka bi-bin-(i)m) 'I
came to see' ; (^.^ "^ vIjIa j\ (au hat ka bi-khwen-e) 'he
came to read'; ^ ^ a^ ^^yi y\ (amm da-khwen-(i)m ka
fer b-(i)m) 'I read to learn', or 'I read that I may learn'.
Perfect Tense
Singular
*j y y\ (amin bu b-(i)m) I may have been, or I may have
become
J y y\ (atu bu b-i) thou mayest have been, or become
j> y j\ (au bu b-e) he° she, it may have been, or be¬
come
Plural
yi y '^\ (ama bu b-in) we may have been, or we may have
become
^jj y jk'>\ (ango bu b-(i)n) you may have been, or be¬
come
y y ijljKawan bu b-(i)n) they may have been, or be¬
come.
292. In this tense, the verb 'to become', occasionally pre¬
fixes another > (bi), consistent with its form in the present
subjunctive. Examples: ^. y ^'^ y^ -^J (ranga amin chak

bu bi-b-(i)m) 'I may have become well' ; csti y y}y- Ji^ 3^
(au dabe kharaptir bu bi-b-e) 'he must have become worse'.
Usually, however, both verbs employ the form given above.
293. The same conjunctions are employed with the per¬
fect subjunctive as are employed with the present subjunctive.

excepting the conclusive conjunctions \la (hata), and y^ 1^*
(hatakii). Examples: ^J, y ^J^ ^ (ej^j^ y^ (amin naza¬
nim aii kie bii b-e) 'I do not know who he may have been';
\J. 3'. 3>^ 4Xjj (ranga Qadir bu b-e) 'it may have been
kadir'; 4i l>- jj'j îola 5I pi (agar au hat-(e) b-e, zar chak-a)
'if he has come, it is very well'; ^jJ oU jljl 43 4l5v.4,* (mum-
kin-a ka awan hat-(e) b-(i)n) 'it is possible that they may
have come'; jy \3 ji (dabe wa bii b-e) 'it must have
been so'.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular
^, y y y\ (amin bii bii b-(i)m) I might have been, or I
might have become
^J, y y y\ (atti bii bu b-i) thou mightest have been, or
thou mightest have become
(J. y y ^ (au bii bii b-e) he, she, it might have been, or he,
she, it might have become
Plural
y y^ y'^^ (ama bii bii b-in) we might have been, or we
might have become
y y y y^^ (ango bti bii b-(i)n) you might have been, or
you might have become
y y y ubUawan bii bii b-(i)n) they might have been, or
they might have become
294. We often find this tense written in a more contracted
form. Examples :,»J y y\ (amin bu-bii b-(i)m), j y, y\
(atûbu-bûb-i),ç^ y j|(aii bu bu b-e), etc. See 285.)

VERBS 121
295. The same conjunctions are employed with this tense
as are employed with the perfect subjunctive. (See 287 and
293.)
296. As to the negative forms of the present, perfect, and
pluperfect subjunctive, see 244, 247 and 250.
CONDITIONAL MOOD
297. For the present tense of the conditional mood, see
251 and 288.
Preterite Tense
Singular
>^L y\ (amin bi-ba-m) if I were, or if I became
(jL y\ (atu bi-ba-i) if thou wert, or if thou becamest
C j\ (ail bi-ba-) if he, .she, it were, if he, she, it became
Plural
,V Lj 4^1 (ama bi-ba-in) if we were, or if we' became
ijlj yvJl (ango bi-ba-n) if you were, or if you became
öC Ö^J^ (awan bi-ba-n) if they were, or if they became

298. The prefix \ (bi) is very often omitted. Examples:
f^ 0^1 p\ (agar amin ba-m), ^s\ y^ y\ (^S^"" ^*" ^^"'^

\) jl y\ (agar aii ba-), etc. See 255.
299. The negative is formed by substituting. the negative
particle \ or lî for the prefix f (bi), or if that is not em¬
ployed, simply prefix the negative particle. Examples:
Ai y\p\ (agar amin na-ba-m) 'if I were not,' (^lî y\ y I

(agar atu na-ba-i) 'if thou wert not', IJ ^1 j3 I (agar au na-ba-)
'if he, she, it were not', etc.
300. In conditional sentences, if the 'protasis', or the

clause containing the condition, is in the present tense, the
'apodosis', or clause containing the conclusion, is put in the
present indicative. (See 251.) But if the 'protasis' is in the
past tense, the 'apodosis' is put in the imperfect indicative.
(See 254 and 258.) Examples :î iJl>- r^lj ^Si> t>,l^l(agar
amin lawai bi-ba-m, chak da-bû) 'If I were there, it would
have been good'; yX ijU- : ^c,\ ij^\ y\ p\ (agar atii lawai
ba-i, chak na-da-bii) 'if you (sing) were there, it would not
have been well', etc.
201. By employing the conjunction l j (birya) 'would

y -J. ^ '
that', instead of J, \ (agar), we obtain an optative sense. Ex¬
amples : =lj ^1 l^ (birya amin bi-ba-m) 'would that I
were'; ^c,^ ^c,^ y\ l^ (birya atu la-wai ba-i) 'would that thou
wert there', etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular
\. y. (>"' (amin bi-bii ba-m) if I have been, or if I have

become
^\ y. y^ (^tii bi-bu ba-i) if thou hast been, or if thou

hast become
\ y 5\ (au bi-bu ba-) if he, she, it has been, or if he,

she, it has become
Plural
61*; y. "^' (ama bi-bu ba-in) if we have been, or if we have

become
'^\ y. y^^ (ango bi-bu ba-n) if you have been, or if you

have become
VERBS 123
ö\ y. öb^ (awan bi-bii ba-n) if they have been, or if they
have become
particle ', or \, for the prefix , > (bi), or if the latter is not
used, simply prefix the negative particle. Example: ^S I
f-\i y y\ (agar amin na-bii ba-m) 'if I have not been',
or 'if I have not become', etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular
^\i y y y\ (amin bi-bu bii ba-m) if I had been, or if I had
become
;_^\, y y y\ (atu bi-bu bu ba-j) if thou hadst been, or if
thou hadst become
\ y y.j\ (au bi-bfi bii ba-) if he, she, it had been, or if
he, she, it had become
Plural
/^\) _jj ^ 4.0I (ama bi-bii bii ba-in) if we had been, or if wc
had become
ö\) y y XjKangö bi-bû bû ba-n) if yx)U had been, or if

you had become
ö\i y y öh^ (awan bi-bii bu ba-n) if they had been, or if
they had become
particle > or \> for the prefix J (bi), or if the latter is not
employed, by simply prefixing the negative particle. Ex¬
amples: ^\) y y -y] p \ {agar amin na-bit bii ba-m) 'if I
had not been', or 'if I had not become'; S\ y y y\ y I

124' A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR
(agar atu na-bii bu ba-i) 'if thou hadst not becn';u yy^Ji\
(agar au na-bii bii ba-) 'if he, she, it had not been,' etc.
304. By employing the conjunction b^ (birya) 'would
that', instead of ^ I (agar), we obtain an optative sense of
all the tenses of the conditional mood. Examples: y^>\ u j
j\) e^J (birya ango lera ba-n) 'would that you were here';
j\j ^) o^J _5X)1 \y (birya ango lera bu ba-n) or yö\ Xiy^
(j\) y y ojS (birya ango lera bvi bii ba-n) 'would that you
had been here', etc..
OPTATIVE MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular
4jV«Ij y\ (amin bi-ba-m-aya) would that I were, or would
that I became
4)Ulj Jl (atii bi-ba-i-aya) would that thou wert, or would
that thou becamest
4ilo jl (au bi-ba-ya) would that he, she, it were, or
would that he, she, it became
Plural
4j11jLj 4.»1 (ama bi-ba-in-aya) would that we were, or would
that we becarne
4)\j lo jSsJl (ango bi-ba-n-aya) would that you were, or would
that you became
4)\)Ij (jljl (awan bi-ba-n-aya) would that they were, or
would that they became
particle > or lî for the prefix j (bi), or if the latter is omit-

VERBS 125
ted, by simply prefixing the negative particle. Example:
4)U\J y\ \iy (bir-ya amin na-ba-m-aya) 'would that I were
not', or 'would that I became not', etc.
306. By employing the conjunction _p l(agar) 'if, instead
of the \y (birya), we obtain a conditional sense of all the
tenses of the optative mood. Example :4jÛL ^^1 ^3 1 (agar
amin bi-ba-m-aya) 'if I were', or 'if I became', etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular
^V, . ^\ (amin bi-bû-m-aya) would that I were, or would
that I had been
4,l._^ /1 (atu bi-bû-i-yaya) would thou wert, or would
that thou hadst been
4,1.^ jl (ail bi-bii-yaya) would that he, she, it were, or
would that he, she, it had been
Plural
4,b^ ^4-1 (ama bi-bû-in-aya) would that.we were, or would
that we had been
A>}y ^\ (ango bi-bû-n-aya) would that you were, or would
that you had been
4,\; ^ öî^ (awan bi-bii-n-aya) would that they were, or
would that they had been
particle > or t for the prefix > (bi), or if the latter is

omitted, by simply prefixing the negative particle. Example:
4.1.^ y\ Vji (bir-ya amin na-bû-m-aya) 'would that I were
not', or 'would that I had not been', etc.

Pluperfect Tense
Singular
4)U\j^ y\ (amin'bi-bii-ba-m-aya) would that I had been, or
would that I had become
^.\.\y. y' (atu bi-bii-ba-i-aya) would that thou hadst been,

or would that thou hadst become
^y.y. 3^ (ail bi-bû-ba-ya) would that he, she, it had been,

or would that he, she, it had become
Plural
"^yiSy "^^ (ama bi-bû-ba-în-aya) would that we had been,

or would that we had become
"^J^Sy A'' (ango bi-bû-ba-n-aya) would that you had been,

or would that you had become
4)\j\)_yJ o^j\ (awan bi-bii-ba-n-aya) would that they had been,
or would that they had become
particle > or lî for the prefix > (bi), or if the latter is
omitted, by simply prefixing the negative particle. Examples :
.\3f ily^ \.ji (bir-ya amin na-bii-ba-m-aya) 'would that I

had not been', or 'would that I had not become'.
309. The preterite tense of the conditional and the optative
moods of the verb 'to be' and 'to become', are peculiar to this
verb and do not exist in other verbs. The regular conjugations
employ only two tenses in these moods, the preterite, and the
perfect or pluperfect. For further notes on these moods, see
194, 4, 5, 260 and 263.

VERBS 127
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular Singular
^ y\ \) (ba amin b-(i)m) ^ ry»\ \i (ba aminbi-b(i)m)
let me be ! - let me become!
4j Jl (atii ba) be thou ! 4o y\ (atii bi-ba)
, j\ \,(ba afi b-e) become thou!
let him, her, it be! ^j j\ \i (ba aii bi-b-e)
let him, her, it become !
Plural Plural
"y 4*1 \) (ba ama b-in) y.j 4^1 b (ba ama bi-b-in)
let us be ! let us become!'
^^_5^1 (ango b-(i)n) ^j ^xil (ango bi-b-(i)n)
be ye! become ye!
A) öb^ ^ (ha awan b-(i)n) y C^3^ \)(baawan bi-b-(i)n)
let them be ! let them become!
310. The negative is formed by prefixing the prohibitive
particle (ma) to the 2nd person singular and plural, and
by prefixing > or li to the others. The exhortative particle
I) (ba) 'let', is always employed with the 1st and 3rd persons,
singular and plural.
311. The difference between the verb 'to be', and 'to be¬
come', and the two extra forir.s of the verb of 'existence', or
the independent and stronger form of the verb 'to be', is very
small as to form, and sometimes even as to meaning. There¬
fore they have been conjugated parallel, so as to make it easier
for the reader to distinguish between them.
Their great similarity has been misleading, even to the gran

.. .11 I.. I. I I. .(,. - -.. '. ' . )' .1.11
marians, as we may see from the table of comparison given
by Ferdinand Justi, No. 170, page 214-217.
PARTICIPLES
312. These two very similar verbs have no other participial
forms than y (bii). It cannot be used adjectively, but in com¬
pound verbs it is sometimes used as a noun. Examples:
Sy Ö3 (win bii-i) 'the lost one', ö\y 03 (win bii-an) 'the
lost ones'; f^y J^(blaii bii-i) 'the scattered (part'),
.ö\y 3%^ (blaii) bû-an) 'the scattered ones'; j_^^ ciii_j (wishk
bi5-i) 'the dry one', ij\y diij (wishk bii-an) 'the dry ones'.
Verbal Noun
oy (biin)
'being'
(The act of being)
A List of Intransitive Verbs
313. It is not to be presumed that all the regular and ir¬
regular intransitive verbs are given here. An effort has, how¬
ever, been made to collect as many of the verbs in common
use as possible.
Although one or two meanings are placed opposite each
verbal root, this is by no means a dictionary. Frequently a
verb is used in four or five or more meanings. Only one, or
at the most two, of these are given.
Very many Kurdish verbs employ the separable prefixes
(see 195, 1), which give them various significations, and nearly
all the Kurdish verbs may take the suffix oj (-wa), and some
VERBS 129
of them do not exist in their real simple form, but must have
a certain prefix, or take the suffix cj (-wa). (See 195, 3.)
The following verbs are conjugated like o^y 'JU oy
and belong to the 'First Conjugation'. A few of these verbs
may also be used transitively, of which reference will be
made later. (See 330.)
Infinitive Imperative
(jL«j^l&(hal-awisan) to hang a^j^ (hal-awis-a)
jLjJ (aisan) to burn ^-j \j (bi-ais-e)
y_)\l (barin) to rain (_^_jlj (bi-bar-e)
jij^ (birzhan) to roast, to
scald o'jy (bi-birzh-a)
j^ 3y. (birzirkan) to shudder,
to jerk p fj^ (bi-bizirk-e)
(y3'y. (biziitin) to move _j^. (bi-biz-ii)
jj;^^ (bazin) to leap, to run ^^yi (bi-baz-e)
/ji^b (da-bazin) to dismount t5j;jb(da-baz-e)
fyjy (burin) to pass over, to
forgive ojy (bi-biir-a)
eyljV (paran-a-wa) to beseech ejej^ (bi-par-a-wa)
yy_ (parin) to straddle, to
breed ey (bi-par-a)
"y.^- (parin-a-wa) to cross "jo^ (bi-par-a-wa)
(JLH. <J (te parin) to pass by oy^ j (te par-a)
yy^ (hal-parin) to dance t>j\s> (hal-par-a)
öO^. (pirzhan) to sprinkle (_$3^ (hi-pirzh-e)

0^^ (pisan) to break (rope) ^^-^. (bi-pis-e)
^^r_5klj_(pishkûtin) to bud Sp^. (bi-pishkû-e)
V,.,".. (pishmin) to sneeze 4*i-i (bi-pishm-a)
j\iy_ (poshan) to cover 4^^ (bi-p5sh-a)
ö^y\> (da-pöshan) to cover up 4i._jj_b (da-pösh-a)
'y-y (tazin) to freeze, to
benumb S'y. (bi-taz-e)
jUy" (tirsan) to fear ^y (bi-rirs-e)
'j\k7(takan) to shake out ^^d. (bi-tak-e)
jU^T (tiUasan) to slip ^^jb (bi-tillas-e)

o\y (tuan) to melt Sy (hi-tû-e)
oy\y (tûan-a-wa) to melt away
to fail t>y_y (bi-tu-e-wa)
>j J (töpin) to die (animal) '^^y (bi-töp-a)
^y (töqîn) to burst, to fear ^^y (bi-töq-a)
ey)'^_^(jûllan-awa) to roll over oy^fy. (bi-jiill-e-wa)
O^jy (töran) to be offended,
to be angry S3y. (bi-tiir-e)
O^J,/? (chirzhan) to startle (be^-
come pale) S)j^. (bi-chirzh-e)
ö\^_^(chrîkan) to scream '^.y^. (bi-chrik-a)

(chinin) to pick, to
gather '^ (bi-chin-a)
eyL-Jç-(chihîn-awa) to knit, to
mend "3^. (bi-chin-a-wa)
^yf. (Chun) to go ^ (bi-ch-û)
öfÇi} (t^ chiîn) to go in, to
contain y?. J (te bi-ch-ii)

VERBS 131
öy^ 6_yJ" (tewa chûn) to go
through y^. ay' (tewa bi-ch-ii)
öy^33 (ro chûn) to sink 3^.33 (''ö bi-ch-ii)
öy^ (la chiin) to go a:side, to
depart ^s- *y (la ch-ii)
j^sJl* (hal-chun) to spnng up,
to grow jsJla (hal-ch-ii)
jj»*»e>- (hajmin) to be quiet (<*=*=^ (bi-hajm-e)
jLj»- (hasan) to rest y^ (bi-has-e)
ey u-!"(hasan-a-wa) to rest out o^ (bi-has-e-a-wa)
jjljW (hawan) to endure, to
stand (^jW)(bi-haw-e)
j\lU-(khalatan) to mistake tj^. (bi-khalat-e)
/^î »>.(khaijtin) to sleep e^ (bi-khaû-a)
j\5ci- (khinkan) to strangle, to
choke y""-^ (bi-khink-e)
ey iy- (khiilan-a-wa) to seek e jJ »?=> (bi-khiil-e-a-wa)
ö\jy- (khöran) or
j^jjj^ (khörîn) to itch, to
scratch S3y^ (bi-khör-e)
jiji (dirran) or
yji (dirrin) to tear S3^ (bi-dirr-e)
ö^ Ij(rakshan) to lie down, to
stretch out ^jS \j, (bi-raksh-e)
Ö UJ J (ranjan) to be disgusted jy*eîjj (bi-ranj-e)
j\ij (rishan) to spill y>y^ (bi^rish-e)
(rishan-a-wa) to vomit "ypy^ (bi-rish-e-a-wa)

^\'jj (rizhan) to shed, to pour
out S'iy. (bi-rizh-e)
j^ jj (rizin) to rot, to putrefy S3y. (hi-riz-e)
y3i (röîn) to go, to depart jy (bi-r-ö)
\\i._j (rûkhan) to go to ruin,
to fall down ij^3y. (bi-rûkh-e)
jl3 (zan) to bear, to give
birth S'y (bi-z-e)
jljj (ziran) or
^jj (zirin) to bray (like an
ass) "^y. (bi-zir-a)
(jlj (zhan) or
yj (zhin) to live S'j. (bi-zh-e)
^.3y (sirawan) to be quiet, to
sit quiet e jy~J (bi-siraw-a)
O^jy (siiran) to whirl, to turn S3y^. (bi-siir-e)
£,J\j.,^(sûran-a-wa) to whirl
repeatedly "^Jy^. (bi^siir-e-a-wa)
ö^ y (sûtan) or S'jy^. (bi-s5zh-e)
yy (sfitin) to burn '^"^^.(hi-sût-e)
j\53 (shikan) to break ^Js!Li (bi-shik-e)
ö^y" (shewan) to be per¬
plexed, to be troubled Syy^. (bi-shew-e)
ey'^tfi- (ghamlaa-a-wa) to beau¬
tify, to dress up c^J*ij (bi-ghaml-e-a-wa)
^îj3(frin) to fly e^ (bir-fr-a)
ij)CSs (qualshan) or
VERBS 133
yl]s (qalshin) to crack, to
burst , tr^ (bi-qalsh-e)
^jU J (qaiiman) or
yy (qaiimin) to happen yy. (bi-qaiim-e)
e Jlij (kishan-a-wa) to with¬
draw, to retreat eîS^j (bi-kish-eâ-wa)
yp> ^<i(pe kanin) to laugh Oo y (pe bi-kan-a)
O^ (kulan) or
,',h (kulin) to boil, to bubble,
to ferment y^'. (hi-kul-e)
ly y (kaiitin) to fall e^5vj (bi-kaii-a)
/J Ala.(hal-kaiitin) to happen o ^xia. (hal-kaii-a)
r)-^y (kiikhin) to cough 4J-=>o (bi-kökh-a)
o\y) (garan) to walk, to
travel Sy^\ (bi-gar-e)
oy\y (garan-a-wa) to return eyj)\j (bi-gar-e-a-wa)
ö\p ^,K'e garan) to seek Sy^, J> (le bi-gar-e)
jl \ ](le garan) to leave alone

'^ . .y
(not touch) eji ^ (le gar-a)
UV J-' (war-garan) or eJ)5 (war-gar-a)
JJ (war-garan-a-wa) to turn
about, to repent cj^y jj (war-gar-a-wa)
O
I 5 (giryan) to weep ^, 3o (bi-gir-ye)
ob^J (göran) or ej^ (bi-gör-a)
o Jl )0(göran-a-wa) to change,
to exchange O^J^r^ (bi-gör-a-wa)
jljy (gûran) to sprout, to
germinate 0>^ (bi-gör-a)

p (gûestin) to remove 4lj^ (bi-göes-a)
,'yS (gain) or
(gaishtin) to reach, to
attain, to ripen 4Xj (bi-g-a)
yj} (larzin) to tremble, to
shiver Ojb (bi-larz-a)
jlj J (lawaran) or
J (lawarin) to feed, to
grass S33^. (bi-lawar-e)
y:\x, (mashtin) to sweep ^l».(bi-mash-e)
.öL*U(hal-musan) to swell up (_^-.Jia (hal-bi-mus-e)
j:)y. (mirdin) to die e^ (bi-mir-a)
jU (man) to remain Al^ (bi-men-a)
( jlj v,b(da-mazran) to arrange c$j_y.b (da-mazr-e)
to urinate 4-.^> (bi-mis-a)
yii:, (nishtin) to sit, to settle ALp> (bi-nish-a)
ylJi \i (da-nishtin) or 4lJ \i (da-nish-a)
y':. .: _5j (rö-nishtin) to sit down 4IJ 33 (rö-nish-a)
yÎAa^ (hal-nishtin) to roost 4ljU (hal-nish-a)

y^y (nûstin) to sleep y (bi-n-ii)
yj3 (wörin) to bark "J^. (bi-wör-a)
j\Lhj (wastan) to stop ^y (bi-wast-a)
0^3^3 (ra-wastan) to stand, to
stop 4X^jnj (ra-bi-wast-a)
ö\ijlj (ra-washan) to shake out y-3\j (ra-wash-e)
yV (hatin) to come c5Î (h-e) or ej^ (war-a)
^"Ub (da-hatin) or y^^ (da-b-e) or

VERBS 135
ojjb (da-war-a)
eAo\*b(da-hatin-a-wa) to stoop ''y\i (da-b-e-a-wa) or
ejejjb (da-war-a-wa)
jljU (hazhan) to move, to
waver Sj\>, (bi-hazh-e)
jl" !*> (hal-i-stan) to rise, to
stand 4lJLJb (hal-i-st-a)
ey uJi* (hal-i-stan-a-wa) to rise
again 6j4l-.la (hal-i-st-a-wa)
j^j (raqsin) to dance ^^^y. (bi-raqs-a)
jw<j^* (hal-aiisin) to hang 4j<j^4i (hal-aiis-a)
yy (narrin) to roar, to howl o__,J (bi-narr-a)
jLj< (shabhan) or y^. (bi-shabh-e)
jLi (shaban) to resemble ."., (bi-shab-e)
jll>-(chaqan) to stand fast,
to stick 4AŞJJ (bi-chaq-a)
j\>t£ (pechan) to wind, to
bundle ^zt (bi-pech-a)
ÛU3-(huban) to love ^_j^ (bf-hub-e)
yyi> (haran) to noise, to
speak loud Syf, (bi-har-e
jlxJii- (khliskan) or ^_j5Cj^ (bi-khlisk-e)

jlxJbUA(hal-khliskan) to slip (_jXJLU4,(hal-khlisk-e)
314. The intransitive verbs, or the verbs of the 'First Con¬
jugation', have infinitives ending in jl (an), j\) (ian), or y_
(in) ; and a few of them have infinitives ending in j_j (fin) or
(y (tin). In other words, verbs of the 'First Conjugation'

are chiefly 1 (a) and ^j (i) verbs, and a few are 3 (û) verbs,
and consonant verbs ending in 0(t). See 193, 1.
315. The I (a) and tS (i) verbs, as a rule, change the 1
or (_^ to e (a) or (_$ (e) in the imperative, and to (j (e) in
the 3rd person singular present tense, but retain the \ (a)
or (J (Î) in the preterite and following tenses. An exception
to this rule is met with in the iJ (i) verb y33 (röin) 'to go'.
In this verb (S is rejected in the imperative 3j.(hi-T-ö), and
it is substituted by \ (a) in the 3rd person singular present
tense; but it is retained in the preterite and following tenses.
(See 193, 2.)
316. The 3 (Û) verbs usually change the j to ^^ (e) in
the 3rd person singular present, but retain it in- the imperative
and in the preterite and following tenses.
317. The O (t) verbs, as a rule, reject the (t) in the im¬
perative and present, but retain it in the preterite and follow¬
ing tenses. One verb also rejects the preceding y (s) in
the imperative and present. Examples: jL-^ (niistin) 'to
sleep'; imperative y (bi-n-ii); present 3rd per. sing, yi
(da-nii) or c^yi (da-u-e).
318. All the verbs in the above list are intransitive when
conjugated according to the 'First Conjugation,' but many
of them, and especially the t^ (i), 3 (ö), and O (t) verbs,
may be conjugated according to the 'Second Conjugation',
and when thus conjugated they become transitive.
The Causal Form of the Verb
319. The causal form of the verb is obtained by adding

VERBS 137
j)_(en) to the present stem, and Jul (and) to the preterite
stem. This changes a verb from an intransitive to a transitive
and from a transitive to a double or strong transitive. Ex¬
ample: ö\->'y (tir-san) is the intransitive verb 'to fear',
jOjL J (tirs-and-(i)n) is its causal or transitive form for
'to frighten' (lit. 'to cause to fear') ; yy (bi-tirs-e) 'fear
thou !' ; 4lw p (bi-tirs-en-a) 'frighten thou !'
If the original verb has a passive sense, like ^y^ (da-siit-
(i)m) 'I burn', or ^p i (da-kule-m) 'I boil', the causal suf¬
fix makes it active: ^'yi (da-sût-en-(i)m) 'I burn (some¬
thing)', çr^ i (da-kul-en-(i)m) 'I boil (something)'.
Many verbs ending in joil (and-(i)n) in the infinitive, are
by nature causal verbs, and do not exist in any other form,
but most of them have corresponding intransitive forms. All
causal verbs are conjugated according to the 'Second Con¬
jugation'.
The Second Conjugation
320. The peculiarity of the 'Second Conjugation', or the
conjugation of the transitive verb is, that it employs the suf¬
fix pronouns as personal endings in all its past tenses, and
these occupy various positions in the verb, or are joined to a
preceding word. (See 204, 205 and 206.)
Conjugation of the regular transitive verb
jX)j?-(khwend-(i)n) 'to read'
ACTIVE VOICE
Infinitive jJLJ ji- (khwend- i Imperative 4J^ (bi-khwen-
(i)n) to read a) read thou!

INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
^ A-i rj\ (amin da-khwen- /jJj ji-,5 4.i>l (ama da-khwen-
(i)m) I read in) we read
yyi y\ (atii da-khwen-i) y y-i yLi 1 (ango da-khwen-
thou readest (i)n) you read
yyi j1 (ao da-khwen-e) yy-i jljl (awan da-khwen-
he, she, it reads (i)n) they read
Note. There is no difference between the 'First' and 'Second'

conjugation, in the present and future tenses.. For the negative form,
see 220, and for the future tense, sec 22L
Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
X^yî y\ (amin da-m- Xjt y- oî 4«l(ama da-man-
khwend) I was reading khwend) we were reading
X.^ j\;:> _jX;l(angö da-tan-
Xi_y Cji y 1 (atii da-t- khwend) or
khwend) thou wast reading X.i^y.3i p^ I (ango da-u"
khwend) you were reading
Xi ytii jl (aii da-i-

X)_^ jli j|j|(awan da-yan-
khwend) he, she, it
khwend) they were reading
was reading
Notc.-^For the negative forms of all the past tenses, see 208.
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
fXiy- y\ (amin khwend- 0\j>Xiy Aj>\ (ama khwend-
(i)m) I read (e)-nian) we read

VERBS 139
C-XiJ- y^ (atii khwend- j\)"Ju)^ yj\ (angökhwend-
(i)t) thou readest (e)-tan) you read
(jXiy ji (au khwend-i) ö\>X}y- jljKawan khwen-
he, she, it read (i)-yan) they read
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
AA3Xiy y$am'm khwen- 4J loj»JLL) ji- 4.ûl (ama khwen-
dii-m-a) I have read dû-man-a) we have read

/y
iiSjAiiy y\ (atii khwendû- 4)17^01) J- Ai I (ango- khwendii-
ta) thou hast read tan-a) you have read
03X1 y _jl (aii khwendii- 4Jl)_5Jlo^ j!jl(awan khwen-
a) he, she, it has read dii-yan-a) they haVe read
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
* jsJiJ^ ^y>l (amin khwend jUyJil) 5>- 4.«1 (ama khwend-
-(e) bii-m) I had read (e) bii-man) we had read
CjyXjy- y\ (atu khwend- ö^yXjy- ^'l(angö khwend
(e) bii-t) thou hadst read '-(e) bii-tan) you had read
(JyXiy- jl (aii khwend- ö$yX)y (jljl (awan khwend
(e) bii-i) he, she, it had read -(e) bii-yan) they had read
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
(t^y^ y\ (amin bi-khwen- ^Jjyti «^1 (ama bi-khwen-
(i) m) I may or might read in) we may or might read
yiyf> y\ (atii bi-khwen-i) ^yt> jXi I (ango bi-khwen-
thou mayest or mightest read (i)n) you may or might read

yyi jl (ail bi-khwen-e) Cyy^ jljl (awan bi-khwen-
he, she, it may or might read (i)n) they may or might read
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
y J^j*t»j y\ (amin bi-m- y aii^jUj Aj»\ (ama bi-man
khwend-(e) b-e) -khwend- (e) b-e)
I may have read we may have read
yXiyC^y] (atii bi-t- .y -Ujy-jG ^ I (ango bi-tan
khwend-(e) b-e) -khwend- (e) b-e)
thou mayest have read you may have read
y Xiyt^ _j| (ail b-i- y -Uj^jlo jljl, (awan bi-
khwend-(e) b-e) yan-khwend-(e) b-e)
he, she, it may have read they may have read
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
y y Xiy>K^ y\ (amin bi-m- y y -Ujji.jl»j 4«1 (ama bi-man
khwend-(e) bii b-e) khwend-(e) bii b-e)
I might have read we might have read
y y -^ jj'l(atû bi-t- y yXj_y:jCi ^$angö bi-tan
khwend-(e) bii b-e) -khwend- (e) bii b-e)
thou mightest have read you might have read
y y Xjyt^ j| (aii b-i- y y Jloy-jL jljl (awan bi-
khwend-(e) bu be) yan-khwend-(e) bii b-e)
he, she, it might have read they might have read

VERBS 141
CONDITIONAL MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
I) JJL)yc») y (amin bi-m- I) xLyö^*i "^^ (a'â bi-man
khwend-(e) ba) -khwend- (e) ba)
if I read if we read
or if I should read or if we should read
$ Xi^yJl^^ y\ (atii bi-t- \> Xj_yo^. y^ * (a"^&° hi-tan
khwend-(e)ba) -khwend- (e) ba)
if thou readest if you read
or if thou shouldst read or if you should read
\) Xiyj j\ (au b-i- \) JOî-jlo jljl (awanbi-
khwend-(e) ba) yan-khwend-(e) ba)
if he, she, it read if they read
or if he, she, it should read or if they should read
Singular Plural
u y Xj y^ y\ (amin bi-m- \ y X^_yö\^^ 4>.l(ama bi-man-
khwend-(e) bii ba) khwend-(e) bii ba)
if I had read if we had read
or if I should have read or if we should have read
I) y XjyC^ y\ (atti bi-t- \ y a:-_p.jb /jKangö bi-tan
khwend-(e) bii ba) -khwend- (e) bii ba)
if thou hadst read if you had read
or if thou shouldst have read or if you should have read
I) y Xjys..3 jl (aii b-i- \) y Xjy-o^ jljl (awan bi-
khwend-(e) bu ba) yan-khwend-(e). bu ba

if he, she, it had read if they had read
or if he, she, it should have or if they should have read
read
OPTATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
4)IJl)^?e<j y\ (amin bi-m- 1 Ai\X}yö^. '^^ (a"â bi-man

khwend-aya) -khwend-aya)
woiild that I read' would that we read
4)Uo^>-Oj J' ^ (atii bi-t- | 4)ljUj-i.jb yj$angö bi-tan
khwend-aya) . -khwend-aya)
would that thou readest ' would that you read
Ai\Xjy^ jl (au b-i- A)\Xiyo^ jljl (awan bi-
khwend-aya) yan-khwend-aya)
would that he, she, it read would that they read
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
4j$ Xiyo} j,«l(amin bi-m- 4) \> Ji:j^jL> 4..1 (ama bi-man
khwend-(e) ba-ya) -khwend-(e) ba-ya)
would that I had read would that we had read
4ji\i X^yJl,) y\ (atii bi-t- 4)_\i Xi^y^j b ^xi I (ango bi-tan
khwend-(e) ba-ya) -khwend- (e) ba-ya)
, would that thou hadst read would that you had read
4ji\) Xjyt^ J I (aii b-i- ''.. ■^*ij*"ö \ii u'j' (awan bi-
khwend-(e) ba-ya) yan-khwend-(e) ba-ya)
would that he, she, it had read would that they had read
NotCi Âs to the regular conjunctions employed .with the sub¬
junctive, conditional, and optative mood.s see 2.39-243, 2.';9-261, 264-266.

VERBS 143
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
yiy) y^ u (ba amin bi ^jjjyi 4.0I I) (ba ama bi-
khwen-(i)m) khwen-in)
let me read ! let us read !
AliM y\ (atti mi-khwen yiyi yj I (ango bi-
-a) read thou ! khwen-(i)n) read ye!
y_3^^ jl u (ba aii bi- jö_jicj jljl \)(ba awan bi-
khwen-e) khwen-(i)n)
let him, her, it read ! let them read
Note. For the negative forms, see 265 and 310.
PARTICIPLES
321, There are no other participial forms to this verb than
the preterite participle Xjy (khwend), which is employed as
a basis for all past tenses, and the perfect participle yXi^y
(khwendii) 'read', which is very seldom employed adjectively.
Verbal Noun
.jJJj^ (khwend- (i)n)
'reading'
(The act of reading)
322. Synopsis of the Irregular Transitive Verb, yi (kutin)
to say'
/
Infinitive jI3 (kutin) Imperative y> (bi-ll-e)
'to say' 'say thou !'

ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
î y\ (amin da-lle-m) t>;;'-^ '^' (ama da-lle-in)
I say, etc. we say, etc.
Note. The future is the same as the present.
Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
iJlSî ^|(amin da-m-giit) JlJ> jUi 4.0I (ama da-man-giit)'
I was saying, etc. we were saying, etc.
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
^ j.«l (amin kiit-(i)m) j\,«JD 4ol(ama, l'dit-(e)-man)
I said, etc. we said, etc.
Note. When the personal ending is suffixed, the accent on that
ending causes the _J (k) to be sounded naturally; but in the imper¬
fect tense no personal ending is employed, and consequently there is
no accent, and therefore thp 3 (k) is pronounced and even written
ci?(g).
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
4« Ji j^l (amin kutii-m-a) 4J U^ 4«! (ama kutii-man-a)
I have said, etc. we have said, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
Cj> >zS y\ (amin kut-(e) O^y "-^ '^' (ama kut-(e)

bû-m) I had said, etc. bii-man) we had said, etc.
VERBS
145
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
C".' 0^' (amin bi-lle-m) ^Jb 4«l (ama bi-lle-in)

I may or might say, etc. we may or might say, etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
CXv
y.<-^^. (bi-m-kut-(e) ^y.
^ C-i
^Û'jUj (bi-man-kut-(e)
b-e) I may have said, etc. b-e) we may have said, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
y y CA^ ^|(amin bi-m y y cJi j'Uj 4^1 (ama bi-man

kut-(e) bii b-e) -kut-(e) bii b-e)
I might have said, etc. we might have said, etc.
CONDITIONAL MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
u CXw ^^1 (amin bi-m-kut- \) cS jLi 4.«l (ama bi-man-

(e) ba) if I said kut-(e) ba)
or if I should say, etc.

if we said
or if we should say, etc.
Singular Plural
u y cSy^ y\ (amin-bi-m-kut *Z^ j Uj 4..I. (ama bi-man-

-(e) bii ba) l) y kut-(e) bii ba
if I had said or if we had said or
if I should have said, etc. if we should have said, etc.

OPTATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
As\:>^ y\ (amin bi-m-kut- 4.b jUj 4*1 (ama bi-man-
kut-aya)
aya) would that I said, etc.
would that we said, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
4,l:iCv /v«l (amm bi-m-kut- 4jIjD jW "Ûama bi-man-

ft . w
(e) ba-ya) kut-(e) ba-ya)
would that I had said, etc, would that we had said, etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
I yl (atu bi-il-e) ji ^1 (ango bi-lle-n)

say thou ! say ye !
PARTICIPLES
323. The only participial forms are the preterite cS

(gut), employed as basis for the past tenses, and yi (kutii),
the perfect participle form, which hardly ever is employed
as adjective
Verbal Noun
(kutin)
'saying'
(The act of saying)
THE PASSIVE VOICE
324. There are two ways of forming the passive in Kurdish.
The 1st. method, which is the simplest and most thoroughly

VERBS 147
Kurdish, is by adding (^^ (re) to the present stem, and Ij
(ra) to the preterite stem of the verb. Example : ^__pyyi
(da-tirsen-(e)-re-m) 'I am being frightened'; /»ljaj'L.y
(rirsand-(e)-ra-m) 'I was frightened'; ^^yyi (da-khwen-
(e)-re-m) 'I am being read'; ^3-^.^- (khwend-(e)-ra-m) 'I
was read' ; j»)_j3y) ,5(da-kiizh-re-m) 'I am being killed'; A33y
(kûzh-ra-m) 'I was killed'; ^jljjiy (kûzh-ra-w-(i)-m) 'I have
been killed'; ^y \y)f (kûzh-ra bû-m) 'I had been killed', etc.
The 2nd method is by placing the preposition 4j (ba) 'by',
and the infinitive of the verb conjugated, before any tense de¬
sired of the verb j^ (chiin) 'to go'. Example: i^^ y^ '^

(ba kushtin dach-(i)m) 'I am being (shall be) \a.\\ç.d' -.y^yLÂj
(ba kushtin chû) 'he, she, it was killed' (lit, 'by killing he
went!)
325. Some dialects use the verb jTU (hatin) 'to come', in¬
stead of j_j>-(chûn), and append the same to the infinitive of
the verb by the prepositional suffix 4 (a) 'to', or the preposi¬
tion J (I) 'to' Example : ytS 4^,5 (de-m-a kushtin) 'I am ;
being (shall be) killed' (lit, 'I am coming (shall come) to kill¬
ing'; yzS 4jU(hat-(i)m-a kushtin"I am killed'; jli-J 4j"\«>

(hat-a kushtin) 'he, she, it was killed' (lit. 'he, she, it came to
killing'); yl^ j'"^* (hat-(i)n I'kushtin) 'they were

killed'. This latter form with the preposition J (l'), is quite
similar to the Syriac J^VoA ^^.'^.'is'â, (bitaya na I'qitla)
'they are being (will be) killed' (lit. 'they are coming to
killing'.
This '2nd. method', however, whether the preposition 4i
(ha), 4, (a), or ] (l') is employed, or whether the auxiliary

jj!>- (chûn) or jî^* (hatin) is used, is not as practicable and
not by far so much employed as the first method.
326. A Synopsis of the Conjunction of a Passive Verb,
öbJy (kuzhran) 'to be killed'
Imperative ofjp^ (bi-kiizhr-a) 'be thou killed !'
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
^jip i (da-kûzh-re-m öt^^r' ^ (da-kazh-re-in)
I am being killed, etc. we are being killed, etc.
Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
Ay':)p i (da-kuzh-ra-m) Ji^Jj^ > (da-kuzh-ra-in)
I was being killed, etc. we were being killed, etc.
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
/
/
aIjj'P (kiizh-ra-m) Ö.3Jp (kûzh-ra-in)
I was killed, etc. we were killed, etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
fjbjjJ (kûzh-ra-w-(i)m) | j^jbjp (kûzh-ra-w-în)
I have been killed, etc. | we have been killed, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
^y I j5'jJ (kuzh-ra bû-m) yy Xjjf (kûzh-ra bû-în)

I had been killed, etc. we had been killed, etc.
VERBS 149
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
fijJjXj (bi-kûzh-re-m) y^^p^ (bi-kiizh-re-în)
I may or .might be killed, etc. we may or might be killed, etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
j^; V}^ (kiizh-ra b-(i)m) ^ô Ijj^ (kiiz-ra-b-in)
I may have been killed, etc. we may have been killed, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
*j Jl Ijjj^ (kuzh-ra bfi b-(i) jJ jJ bj'^^ (kuzh-ra bu b-in)
m) we might have been killed, etc.
I-might have been killed, etc.
CONDITIONAL MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
A ljj_^ (bi-kiizh-ra ba-m) ji I Ijj^So (bi-kiizh-ra
If I were killed, etc. - ba-in)
if we were killed, etc.
Singular Plural
{ . y ^33y> (bi-kiizh-ra bii y\i y Ijj^Xi (bi-kiizh-ra bii

Ol'l 3\ ^333^
ba-m) ba-in)
If I had been killed If we had been killed
or if I should have been killed, or if we should have been
etc. killed, etc.

OPTATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
A}\Ay)yj (bi-kiizh-ra-m- 4i\öl

.' li^Xi (bi-kiizh-ra-in-
aya) aya)
would that I were killed, etc. would that we were killed, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Sirigular Plural
4,Ul. 1j3 ,^ (bi-kûzh-ra ba-m a>\:A ljj_jk. (bi-kûzh-ra ba-in

^3Jy
aya) -aya)
would that I had been killed, would that we had been killed,
etc. etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular (2nd. pers.) Plural (2nd. pers.)
ûjjj^ (bi-kûzh-r-a) y33y^ (bi-kiizh-re-n)
be thou killed ! be ve killed !
PARTICIPLES
/
327. The participles are the preterite participle Ijj^
(kûzh-ra) which, forms the basis of all the past tenses, and
the perfect participle jljjj^ (kûzh-ra-û) 'killed', which is
quite extensively used both as an adjective and as a noun.
Verbal Noun
ö'3'jp (kiizhran)
'killing'
(The action of being killed)
328. The passive verb employs the 'enclitic' form of per¬
sonal endings, the same as the intransitive verb. For all the
VERBS 151
conjunctions employed with the various moods and tenses,
and for all the negative forms, see 214 to 269.
A List of Transitive Verbs
329. The following list contains a large number of transi¬
tive verbs that are in common use. To these the student may
add all the verbs given in the 'List of Intransitive Verbs' (See
315), after adding the 'causal' suffixes that change them into
transitives. (See 319.)
The star (*) appearing opposite a verb, denotes that the
verb may be conjugated both as intransitive and as a transi¬
tive, or according to either the 'First' or the 'Second' conjuga¬
tion, usually with a change of meaning.
These verbs are all conjugated like ÖX>y- (khwend-(i)n)
'to read', yS (kutin) 'to say', or the passive verb jljj^*
(kiizhran) 'to be killed'.
î.1 (akhinin) 4:>.l (bi-akhin-a)
to press down
yyj 1 (angaiitin) to hit oyjj (bi-ngû-a)
to oflfend
yyj\ ^Ja (Ihal-angaiitin) oys,LiA(hal-bi-ngû-a)
to hit upon, to offend at ^y-^' I J^ (hal-angii-a)
joj I^Xt I (angiiandin) to 41)^X1) (bi-ngiien-a)
cause to hit, to cause to
offend'
jijl.j<l (aspardin) to de- ç. ,..,.i (bi-sper-a)
liver, to entrust
jijL--l Ij (raaspardin) to 0 ..~-)lj (ra bi-sper-a)
tell, to command
jjGt>l (astandin) ilJ (bi-sten-a)
to take
jJu \l.-l U (hal-astandin) 4:JL.i«> (hal-bi-sten-a)
.to raise up 4:j>IJ»(hal-asten-a)
y yy^ (astirin) to clean 0 JL-i (bi-stir-a)
(blow the nose)
/..j-jl U (hal-awasin) * 4^jl \.5> (hal-awis-a)
to hang up
jljjl (awitin) or (_^ j\i (bi-aw-e)
^rijjT(awishtin) ' (,"j ,\, (bi-awezh-a)
to throw, to shoot
j:>jU3l (azhmardin) Oj^y^ (bi-zhmer-a)
to count
jljjl (azhiian) jjl)(bi-azh-ii)
to drive
jJul^l(afirandin 4l)_;Ai(bi-firen-a)
to create
jOJ lijl (eshandin) to in¬ 4:JLo (bi-eshen-a)
jure, to cause pain, to vex
j.ijij (bakhshin) * to <Ci=j (bi-bakhsh-a)
forgive, to present
jJJ (bashin) 4i.j (bi-bash-a)
to divide
jl-j(bastin) to tie I (bi-bast-a)
^b (da-bastin) <C^\i (da-bast-a)
to tie down
VERBS 153
jl (hal-bastin) aLÎs, (hal-bast-a)
to tie up
oi (birdin) 4,.o (bî-b-a)
to carry away
jiylj (ra-birdin) 4^1j(ra-bT-b-a)
to pass by
O^y/i (la birdin) 4.jV (la-bT-b-a)
to carry aside
yy (brin) to cut, to 0 .J (bi-bir-a)
bear, to measure
jl__o (bistin) to hear 4^ (bi-bi-ya)
ijijVy (bizhardin) or oyj^ (bi-bizher-a)
jijl".As> (hal-bizhardin) oyjli> (hal-bizher-a)
to pick, to choose
ö>J^y, (bijardin) 0 .1 y (bi-bûwer-a)
to' pass over, to forgive
jijl_j)lj (ra-biiardin) '^.3.3 (ra-bûwer-a)
to pass by 0 J jjlj(ra-bi-biiwer-a)
jJLJl 0 (birandin) to Al>y (bi-biren-a)
cause to cut, to finish
jjjljîii (boghzandin) Aipk.j (bi-boghzen-a)
to hate
j'_jj| (börin) to low. ojy (bi-bör-a)
to bellow, to roar
j)"_^\) (palaiitin) e^JL) (bi-pal-e-a-wa)
to strain
jl>lj\i (parastin) to ab- flyjyi (bi-parez-a)
strain, to keep from
jUc*ii (pechan) * 4>>iî (bi-pech-a)
to wrap
oy Wo (pechan-a-wa) * o3Apy..) (bi-pech-a-wa)
to wrap up
jaj Wj (pechandin) 4JU>t»j (bi-pechen-a)
to cause to wrap
<y.J^^ (pichirin) oj9t^> (bi-pichir-a)
to rip, to go apart
Cy'ji (parastin) 4-.!^ (bi-pares-a)
to worship
a::^4 (pirsin) Aj-y (bi-pirs-a)
to ask, to inquire
, jTjll) (pishaiitin) ey..^ (bi-pishew-a)
to rub
ySjij) (pishkinin) 4l>v.iwJ (bi-pishkin-a)
to search, to loot
yP y_ (■çöshln) to cover AÎ^y (bi-pösh-a)
(j^y\i (da-pö^hîn) * A^y\i (da-p5,sh-a)
to cover up
jaj Lj (pisandin) 4: .J (bi-pisen-a)
to cause to break
jJJ 13j^. (pirzhandin) Ali'jy (bi-pirzhen-a)
^to cause to sprinkle
yH (tanin) to weave 411) (bi-tan-a)
yp'^ (tashin) ^öt) (bi-tash-a)
to hew, to shave
VERBS 155
jJi; \xr (takandin) 4l-5sJJ (bi-taken-a)
to shake of!
jjL;ly.'(tfiandin) 40 jJ (bi-ttien-a)
to cause to melt
y\y (tiJanin) 4) \y (bi-tûan-a)
to be able
öx\^y (tirsandin) 41^^ (bi-tirsen-a)
to frighten
jlx^j J(triiskan) y^3y (bi-triisk-e)
to shine, to reflect
, jOJ \s^3y (trûskandin) 4lJ^^jÎ) (bi-triisxen a)
to cause to shine
oy (jûn) to chew ej^ (bi-jii-a)
öx\y (jiiandin) A^y^ (bi-jûen-a)
to cause to chew
jJLi U (chandin) 4l,.>>j (bi-chen-a)
to sow
jU>- (chinin) Al>zi (bi-chin-a)
to pick, to gather
^lL^ (cheshtin) û".^ (bi-chezh-a)
to taste
eyj^ (chinin-a-wa) ej4Jj^ (bi-chin-a-wa)
to knit, to crochet, to mend
j-lîU^ (chaqandin) 4JLA>ej (bi-chaquen-a)
to plant, to cause to stick
jVl* (halan) ^\^ (bi-hal-a)
to lift( one self), to rise

j-XJ*^\* (halandin) 4:J\jj (bi-halen-a)
to cast about
jOJ ^ (hal-andin) 4:1^ (bi-halen-a)
to raise up 4l.i«. (hal-en-a)
jjJ L>»- (hasandin) 4lw.j>c) (bi-hasen-:a)
to cause to rest
jJli \X9- (hakandin) 4;Jsj>c) (bi-haken-a)
to relate, to narrate
j-Xi La- (hubandin) 4l»j>tj (bi-huben-a)
to love
y:.^ (khistin) 4pe) (bi-kh-a)
to throw, to thrust
yî (da-khistin) 4?e)b (da-bi-kh-a)
to throw down, to bow
jl-i-lj (ra-khistin) 4^lj (ra-bi-kh-a)
to spread, to stretch
yLJ>-ji (dar-khistin) 4p«ij^ (dar-bi-kh-a)
to drive but, to cast ofif
j,L-i- (_j! (le khistin) 4>cj ^ (le bi-kh-a)
to suspend, to expel!
y3f- (khörîn) ejyi^ (bi khör-a)
to itch, to scratch
' yjy J (le khorin) ejy J (le khor-a)
to drive, to rebuke '
03i\y- (khirandin) 4jij>ei (bi-khiren-a)
to gairgle, to foam
VERBS 157
jaj|__^» (hal-khirandin) 1) jiJiA

4.) hal-khiren-a)
to hack up, to foam up
jijlî- (khwardin) y^ bi-kh-ö)
to eat
oyiy^y (khwardin-a-wa) >3yz} bi-kh-ö-a-wa)
to drink
y-f^y (khwastin) ayyd bi-khwaz-a)
to ask, to wish, to betrot
ÖXj_y>- (khwendin) 4o jpo bi-khwen-a)
to read
jOJ \fii>- (khasandin) Al.^Px> bi-khasen-a)
to castrate
jo! \xli- (khinkandin) 4Xlpt) bi-khinken-a,
to cause to strangle
j.Ai lj_yi- (khörandin) Ajj J yj bi-khören-a)
to cause to itch
jli (dan) to give oX bi-d-a)
jb J (le dan) le bi-d-a)
to beat, to strike
j\i y (bar dan) oJb bar bi-d-a)

J".
to let go, to set free
yf\i (dashtin) X bi-der-a)

V.
to water, to irrigate
jlilala (hal-dashtin) ay. Jk hal-der-a)
to thrown down, to run
violently
y_i (din) or 4~^ bi-bin-a)
y_i (ditin) to see

oyi (din-a-wa) or "''^t'. (bi-bin-a-Wa)
eyZji (ditin-a-wa)
to find,
yj i (dirrin) ojJii (bi-dirr-a)
to tear, to rip
^jjJiö (hal-dirrin) ojJiiA (hal-bi-dirr-a)
to tear up, to rip up
jjj:> (drûn) jjJd (bi-dr-û)
to sew, to stitch, to cut
down, to reap
ry'ji (dizin) to steal e'jX (bi-diz-a)
jJi'tlji (dûandin) AI33X (bi-diien-a)
to take notice of, to speak to
jjijlj:* (dirrandin) 4j jJb (bi-dirren-a)
to cause to tear, to devour
jj>j^ (döshîn) to milk 1 4i jJb (bi-dösh-a)
yjj (rinin) to scrape AJ y (bi-rin-a)
y^j (rishtin) oyy (bi-rezh-a)
to spill, to pour
j-lj|jj (rizhandin)
to cause to shed, to cause to ^_jy (bi-rizhen-a)
spill
y^j (ristin) to spin 4-j^ (bi-res-a)
ÖX Ijj (rafandin) Aîy (bi-rafen-a)
to ravish, to snatch away
y ^33 (riianin) to gaze A)^y (bi-riian-ra)
y>3 (zanin) to know AJ\'y (bi-zan-a)

VERBS 159
jaioC; j3 (ziringandin) 4Söj^j (hi- ziringen-a)
to cause to ring, to sound
jailj (zhandin) 411^1 (bi-zhen-a)
to churn
jJi;lj^^(siirandin) 4l)jj-J (bi-siiren-a)
to cause to whirl, to spin
jJL) h y (sûtandin) 4,..J j (bi-sûten-a)
to cause to burn, to scorch
eyij\i' (shardin-a-wa) e3BjJLi (bi-sher-a-wa)
to hide, to conceal
jj jli (shaûtin) to rub o^î (bi-shew-a)
joj Ixi (shikandin) alSJL) (bi-shiken-a)
to cause to break
j^lji (shelan) to aLIj (bi-shel-a)
tramp on, to kneed, to strip
U-IJ^J. (shelandin) 4-JiJLj (bi-shelen-S)
to cause to tramp on, etc,
jZi.i (shijshtin) ji) (-bi-sh-ii)
to wash
j-lj\j^ (shabhandin) or 4l|;(-ij (bi-shabhen-a)
jJl) Li (shabandin) 41.JL) (bi-shaben-a)
to compare, to liken
jOJ Ulc (a'limandin) alJ^jo (bi-a'lmen-a)
to discipline, to correct
j-AJ U Is (famandin) 41 (bi-famen-a)
to understand
Oyy (farmiin) 3^y. (bi-farm-ii)
to command, to request
jJi)ly^9 (friwandin) or 41)_j)^^j!) (bi-friwen-a)
j-li \y JiU (hal-friwandin) Ai^_y^JliÂ (hal-friwen-a)
to defraud
y 3y (frotin) or , 4ij .iu (bi-frösh-a)
y^3y (fröshtin) to sell
jji) \-j (pasandin) '^rr'::? (bi-pasen-a)
to select, to choose
jjJ Ix (khliskandin) 4l.> LUi (bi-khlisken-a)
to cause to slip
jail^J (qizhandin) 4:,^Jii(bi-qizhen-a)
to cry
jJlJ (qandin) to dig 4li) (bi-qan-a)
jjulis. (hal-qandin) Kâ^ (hal-qan-a)
to dig up
jO) iSLjbicls. (hal-khliskan- 4:.xJipJLa> (hal-khlisken-a)
din) to cause to slip
öiy (kirdin) 4>o (bi-k-a)
to do, to make
oyiy (kirdin-a-wa) oj4>j (bi-k-a-wa)
to open, to loosen
öiySA (hal-kirdin) 4>Jia> (hal-k-a)
to light, to make fire
iO>y 3^ (dar-kirdin) 4X)j,> (dar bi-k-a)
to put out
y_y (kirin) to buy o^^ (bi-kir-a)

VERBS 161
jb (kutan) a:So (bi

(bi-kut-a)
to beat, to flog, to vaccinate
yi^ (kushin) or 4i5o (bi-kush-a)
oypi (kushin-a-wa) Bj4i5o (bi-kush-a-wa)
to press, to squeeze
jjljli..3 (kushandin or' 4lJlX) (bi-kushen-a)
eyjj LLS (kushandin-a-wa) oj4l-iX) (bi-kushen-a-wa)
to cause to press
öJö\jy> (kiizhandin) or 4jj^ (bi-kiizhen-a)
eyx\'jy> (kiizhandin-a- 6j4j3'^ (bi-kûzhen-a-wa)
wa) to cause to extinguish
e^JllllS (kishandin-a-wa) 'o3AL1S\j (bi-kishen-a-wa)
to cause to withdraw, to
cause to retreat
jJjllS \j (rakishandin) 4LJLx)Ij (ra-bi-kishen-a)
to cause to lie down, 4:>ij \y (bi-rakshen-a)
to cause to stretch out
ysS (kushtin) to kill ojSo "(bi-kiizh-a)
ft..nrr ' (liushtiu-a-wa) e3ejyj (bi-kiizh-a-wa)
to slaughter
jJilj b (da-kandin) 43 b (da-kan-a)
to undress.
jliJ (keshan) 41X1 (bi-kesh-a)
to draw, to endure, to suflfer
jJli \LS (keshandin) 4-,-: Vi (bi-keshen-a)
to cause to draw
/.
,. /
j\lp b (da-keshan) 410 b (da-kesh-a)
to pull down
j\i/lj(ra-keshan) 4ip Ij (ra-kesh-a)
to pull out, to force
jliLxU (hal-keshan) aLSAa (hal-kesh-a)
to draw up, to hoist
jL-5 (gastin) to bite 4«isj (bi-gas-a)
jl^ (geran) or o^Sj (bi-ger-a)

Dyl^(geran-a-wa) "J-'^.y^ (bi-ger-a-wa)
to tell, to narrate
yy (girtin) oy<> (bi-gir-a)
to take, to catch, to seize
y^p^ (hal-girtin) eyJ^ (hal-gir-a)
to take up, to carry
jT^jj (war-girtin) "^0.33 (war-gir-a)

to receive
jlJj|,(görin) or ojS^ (bi-gör-a)

eyjy> (görîn-a-wa) o3ejyj (bi-gör-a-wa)
to change, tb exchange
(.yJjXU (hal-girtin-a-wa) oj*_M* (hal-gir-a-wa)
to gather, to take up
jj3^(gaûzin) ojjXj (bi-gaûz-a)

to wallow, to roll up
03/ (guriin) j^ (bi-gur-u)

,to skin, to strip ofif
yP Ij (ra-girtin) 0} Ij (ra-gir-a)
to keep, to hold
VERBS 163-
yy\:> (da-girrin) ey b (da-gir-a)
to attack, to press
yS (kutin) to say Ji^ (bi-ll-e)

(garandin) 4Ö_^ (bi-garen-a)
to cause to walk, to lead
\eyS>\y (garandin-a-wa) J Ju (bi- garen-a-wa)

OJ4-J
to cause to turn
jJk'il ,3 )j (war-garandin) 4-J 5 JJ (war-garen-a)

f
eyx\y 33 (war-garandin-a- o3ALi y 33 (war-garen-a-wa)
wa) to cause to turn back,
to cause to repent, to invert
jai Lb (gaiandin) 4l,.J>vj (bi-gaien-a)
to cause to arrive
yLj (listin) or A L (bi-les-a)
o»II-~5 (listin-a-wa) oj4_Jb (bi-les-a-wa)
to lick up
öx\jj (larzandin) 41)3 Jb (bi-larzen-a)
to cause to tremble
Öx\jP (laiirandin) 4öj^ (bi-laiiaren-a)
to cause to feed, to herd
yy (mizhtin) . "'y'. (bi-mizh-a)
to suck, to nurse
jjJu (malin) <'\»j (bi-mal-a)
to sweep, to scrape off
öx\y (mirandin) 4Ö .V (bi-miren-a)
to cause to die, to kill

164
O^ (nan) y (bi-n-e)
to put, to place
ö^\i (da-nan) or ^b (da-bi-n-e)
0^3j (rö-nan) y33 (rö-bi-n-e)
to put down, to set down
jij\j (nardin) to send ojP (bi-ner-a)
y^^ (nashtin) oj^ (bi-nezh-a)
to bury
yy^ (nasin) 4>L) (bi-nas-a)
to know, to recognize
y,3y (nörin) ojy (bi-nor-a)
to growel, to roar
jJLJiy (nûandin) A^y (bi-nûen-a)
to put to sleep, to compare
yj^y (nûarîn) to gaze, ej\y (bi-niiar-a)
to consider, to stare at
O^y (nûsan) or 4>jö (bi-nûs-a)
ey U\» (nûsan-a-wa) e3A^y (bi-nûs-a-wa)
to stick
yj-y (niisin) to write 4>yj (bi-nûs-a)
4;j_jlyj (bi-nûaren-a)
jJiîljljj (nûarandin)
to cause to gaze
eyy (bi-wer-a)
ö^y.3 (weran)
to dare, to venture
Sy (bi-w-e)
y^j (wistin)
to wish, to want
VERBS 165
jJli \l>'3 (wastandin) y (bi-wasten-a)
to cause to stop, to arrest
jO) ll^jlj (ra-wastandin) 4;w>jlj (ra-wasten-a)
to cause to stand
jjj\ijlj (ra-washandin) "C-ijIj (ra-washen-a)
to cause to shake
^jl* (hawitin) or S3^. (bi-aw-e)
jl^_ji* (hawishtin) o^j\) (bi-awezh-a)
to throw, to shoot
jU^ (henan) or 4l;^ (bi-hen-a)
ÖLj (enan) to bring) *^ (bi-en-a)
jLj>b (da-henan) <î (da-beri-a)
to bring forth, to apply
j"'".;^ (heshtin) 4L (bi-el-a)
to leave, to let, to permit
y^_ (eshtin) or
j^L* (helan) or
jw.>»b (da-heshtin) or 4]Lib (da-el-a)
jlijb (da-eshtin) to 4l)b (da-el-a)
lower, to suspend, to delay
Cyp^ yr ^. (ba je heshtin) or 4L y^ 4i (ba je bi-el-a)
0*i fS^ ^. (ha je eshtin)
to leave (behind)
jljv* (haran) or S3\i (bî-har-a)
ÛI7;* (heran) Syy. (bi-her-a)
to grind, to make fine

166
jJiiljl* (harandin) ,4JjV^ (bi-haren-a)
to cause to grind
joj^ (hal-andin) or 4l1a (hal-en-a)
jJij LJl* (hal-enadin) 4;uJa (hal-enen-a)
to lift, to raise
(>'% (hal-atin) J* (hal-e)
to rise, to appear, to flee J^ (bi-hal-e)
jJblj^* (hazhandin) a:j'j\> (bi-hazhen-a)
to shake, to jolt
ySslA (hangaiitin) çSpt>. (bi-1

Sy'^. (bi-hangii-e)
to hit, to touch Syp (bi-ngii-e)
330. A large majority of the transitive verbs, or the verbs
of the 'Second Conjugation', have infinitives ending in ji
(din), some have infinitives ending in y (tin) or y (in),
and a very few have endings in jl (an) or jj (iin). In other
words, verbs of the 'Second Conjugation' are mostly caus-
atives, or consonant verbs ending in i (d), some are O
(t) or ^S (i) verbs, and a very few are 1 (a) or j (û) verbs.
(See 193, 1, and 314.)
331. An un-prolongated initial \ in the infinitive is
dropped in the imperative and in all tenses employing the in¬
separable prefixes j (bi) or i (da). Examples: joill^l
(astandin) 'to take', a:^^^ (bi-sten-a) 'take thou!', p-^^
(da-sten-(i)m) 'I take' or 'I shall take'. An exception to this
rule in regard to the prefix j (bi) is met with in composite
verbs. Examples: jaîl^lj* (hal-angûan-din) 'to cause

to offend'; 4JjXJl U (hal-angiien-a) or 40^0 J* (hal-bi-
VERBS 167
ngiien-a) 'cause thou to offend !'. The same holds good in the
present subjunctive, and other forms of the verb, where the
prefix J (bi) is employed.
332. All the causative verbs, and nearly all the other tran¬
sitives, take 4 (a) as the imperative ending, which can be
clearly seen from the above list.
Irregularity of the Verb (J-^J (wistin)
'to want', 'to wish'
333. This verb is different from all others in this respect,
that it usually takes the 'suffix pronouns' for personal endings
in the present tense. Examples : Sy> (da-m-awe) 'I want',
e^jCo (da-t-awe) 'thou wantest', ^Sy? (da-i-awe) 'he, she,
it wants', t5jjU,> (da-man-awc) 'we want', c^jjui (da-tan-
awe) or S33^ (da-û-awe) 'you want', and (^jjlo (da-yan-
awe) 'they want'. It is perfectly regular in all its other tenses,
except in the present tense indicative, as shown above, and in
the present subjunctive. Examples: c5j*; (bi-m-awe) 'I
may or might want', i^jO; (bi-t-awe) 'thou mayest or might¬
est want', e$jo (bi-i-awe) 'he, she, it nxay or might want',
S30^ (bi-man-awe) 'we may or might want', S30^.
(bi-tan-awe) 'you may or might want', S30^. (bi-yan-awe)
'they may or might want'.
The Impersonal 'must'
334. The impersonal verb 'must', emj^loyed as auxiliary
in forming necessitative sentences, is yi (dabe) for the pres¬
ent tense, and \i (daba) or yi dabii) for the past tenses.
(See 241 and 258.)

Compound Verbs
335. A very large number of 'compound verbs' are formed
in Kurdish by combining a noun or an adjective with a
number of auxiliary verbs. (See 192, 4), These verbs are
either transitive or intransitive, and are used both in the
'active' and in the 'passive' voice, just like any other verbs.
The verbs most frequently employed as auxiliaries in form¬
ing compounds are the following :
jiJ (kirdin) to do, to make 4>vj bi-k-a)
eîy (kirdin-a-wa) to re-make, to oj4>o bi-k-a-wa)
open
oy (biin)* to be, to become ai b-a), 4j(bi-b-a)
oy y (biin-a-wa)* to be or o}^ b-a-w5)
to become (repeatedly) oj4-j bi-b-a-wa)
jb (dan) to give oX bi-d-a)
,'\\i\i (da-dan) to give (down) oX\i da-bi-d-a)

. '' '/
yp (kaûtin) to fall o,X) bi-kaw-a)
jli..5 (keshan) to endure, to suffer »L.jk> bi-kesh-a)
jL.*. (henan) to bring bi-hen-a)
4-J bi-en-a)
y
y (girtin) to take, to seize L bi-gr-a)
jL (man) to remain 4_*) bi-men-a)
^^' I* (hatin)* to come y^ b-e),ejj(war-a)
jjUb (da-hatin)"* to come (down) y\i da-b-c-)
ej3\i da-war-a)
öjç-Cchûn)"' to go f^. bi-ch-û)

VERBS 169
yJiî^ (heshtin) to leave, to permit aJLj (bi-el-a)
j,5jLi- (khwardin) to eat yi (bi-kh-ö)
jt^ (siitan) to burn y yJ, (hi-shûi-e)
y~J3 (wistin) to want, to wish Sy (bi-w-e)
Note. Verbs marked with a star (*) belong to the 'First Conju¬
gation'.
336. Model of the Conjugation of a Compound Active Verb
O^P ^^W-(hazir kirdin)
'to prepare'
ACTIVE VOICE
Infinitive j^^^^\>.(hazir Imperative 4x1 -^\»-(hazir bi-
kir-din) to prepare k-a) prepare thou !
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
C^ ^r^l9-(hazir da-ka-m) yi i ^^l>-(hazir da-ka-în)
I prepare, etc. we prepare, etc.
Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
> ç^r^(*>-(hazir-(i)m da- ^ C^ jUÛ-(hazir-man da-
kirt) I was preparing, etc. kirt) we were preparing, etc.
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
ip ^^W(hazir-(i)m kirt) ip jU_^\>-(hazir-man kirt)
I prepared, etc. we prepared, etc.

Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
0,5^ ^^^ W(hazir-(i)m kir- oj,5 p jL.^^ l>.(hazir-man kir-
dii-a) I have prepared, etc. du-a) we have prepared, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
y ip ^_^\>-(hazir-(i)m y ip jlo^^l».(hazir-man
Jcird-(e) bii) kird-(e) bu)
I had prepared, etc. we had prepared, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
( y' U- (hazir bi-ka-m) yPj ^^ \»- (hazir bi-ka-in)
I may or might prepare, etc we may or might prepare,
etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
J iy ^y>^ (hazir-(i)m 1 iy jU -^W(hazir-man
kird-(e) b-e) kird-(e) b-e)
I may have prepared, etc. we may have prepared, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
y y iy /»Û(hazir-(i)m y y iy jU_^ U(hazir-man
kird-(e) bii b-e) kird-(e) bii b-e)
I might have prepared, etc. we might have prepared, etc.

VERBS 171
CONDITIONAL MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
b iyj />^^l»-(hazir-(i)m \) i^^ jL _>\>-(hazir-man
bi-kird-(e) ba) bi-kird-(e) ba)
if I prepared, or if we prepared, or
if I should prepare, etc. if we should prepare, etc.
Singular Plural
\> y ,5__^j>._Û(hazir-(i)m \) y iy^ (j L>_^ la-(hazir-man
bi-kird-(e) bu ba) bi-kird-(e) bii ba)
if I had prepared, or if wo had prepared, or
if I should have prepared, if we should have prepared,
etc. etc.
OPTATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
4)b^ *^W(hazir-(i)m '^}^yi jU^.Û(hazir-man

bi-kird-aya) bi-kird-aya)
would that I prepared, etc. would that we prepared, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
aA) iX} >._Û(hazir-(i)m 4)\) :>^ jU^\9-(hazir-man
bi-kird-(e) ba-ya) bi-kird-(e) ba-ya)
would that I "had prepared, would that we liad prepared,
etc. etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
4Xj _^W(hazir bi-k-a) I jXi ^W (hazir bi-k-(a)n)
prepare thou ! I prepare ye !
Verbal Noun
(jip _^.,<»\>-(hazir kirdin)
'preparing'
(The act of preparing.)
337. The peculiarity of the compound transitive verb is
that in all the past tenses the 'suffix pronouns' or personal
endings are joined to the noun or adjective employed, and
the auxiliary appears in its simple tense stem. The negative
is formed by simply prefixing the negative particle > or u
to the tense stem. In all tenses employing the inseparable
prefixes i (da) or > (bi), except in the imperfect indicative,
the negative particles are substituted for the prefixes. Ex-
amples:j»5vj _^\>-(hazir na-k-(a)m) or j»3 iJ _^ l>- (hazir na-
k-(a)m) 'I do not prepare', or 'I will not prepare';
Xj J»l>- 4Xij(ranga hazir na-k-(a)m) 'I may or might not
prepare' ; i p a, . J?W(hazir-i()m na-da-kirt) I was not pre¬
paring'; e3i S J^r^l>-(hazir-ri kirdii-a) 'you have prepared';
e3iy~> (_$ -j»U-(hazir-i na-kirdi"i-a) 'he, she, it has not pre¬
pared'; y iyî o^ yf\3- (hazir-tan na-kird-(e) bii), or
3l iyj 3j-^^ (hazir-ii na-kird-(e) bii) 'you had not pre¬
pared', etc.
338. Model of the Conjugation of a Compound Passive Verb
yp j-fi^ (hazir kiran)
'to be prepared'
VERBS 173
Infinitive j|^_^\>-(hazir Imperative ^ ^ W(hazir bi-

kiran) to be prepared kir-a) be thou prepared!
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
^P i J?W(hazir da-ki-re- yp i Û(hazir da-ki-re-
m) I am being prepared, etc. in) we are being prepared.
etc.
Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
^\p i ->l>-(hazir da-ki-ra- y\Ji':> ^\>-(hazir da-ki-ra-
m) I was being prepared, in) we were being prepared,
etc. etc.
Preterite Tense
'Singular Plural
.\ / Û(hazir ki-ram) ^,|^^W(hazir ki-ra-in)

I was prepared, etc. we were prepared, etc
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
P3\y ^W(liazir ki-ra-w- y>3\y _>W- (hazir ki-ra-w-
(i)m) I have been prepared, in) we have been prepared.
etc. etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
ay \ .3 -.^^\>-(hazir ki-ra bii- yy\y _^W(hazir ki-ra-bii-
m) 1 had been prepared, etc in) we had been prepared,
etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
ftiy-l j~^ l>-(hazir bi-ki-re- y^y^_ ^Û-(hazir bi-ki-re-

m) I may or might be pre (in) we may or might be
pared, etc. prepared, etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
j*J 1^ ^.-i^W (hazir ki-ra b- y)P _^l>-(hazir ki-ra b-
(i)m) I may have been pre in) we may have been pre¬
pared, etc. pared, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
^. !f. y _r^l>-(hazir ki-ra (jo y \p _Û-(hazir ki-ra
bii b-(i)m) bii b-in)
I might have been prepared, we might have been pre¬
etc. pared, etc
CONDITIONAL MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
^1; l^j ^.^W (hazir bi-ki-ra jl b 1^^ ^^\>.(hazir bi-ki-ra
ba-m) If I were prepared, ba-in) If we were prepared,
etc. etc.
Singular Plural
^\ y. '^ ^^(hazir bi-ki- ^^_\j y \p^ _^ U(hazir bi-ki-

ra bii ba-m) ra bu ba-in)
VERBS 175
if I had been prepared, or if we had been prepared, or
if I should have been pre¬ if we should have been pre¬
OPTATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
4iUl^ _Û(hazir bi-ki- 4.L)\^ _^ U (hazir bi-ki-
ra-m-aya) ra-in-aya)
would that I were prepared, would that we were pre¬
etc. pared, etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
4) U\i I isj -^^.-(hazir bi-ki- 4)Li\) l_^)^>W(hazir bi-ki-
ra ba^n-aya) ra ba-in-aya)
would that I had been pre¬ would that we had been pre¬
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular (2nd pers.) Plural (2nd. pers.)
cjC< ^\^(haz\rh\-k\-r-a) I j.^ _^>U(hazir bi-ki-re-n)

be thou prepared ! etc. I be ye prepared ! etc.
PARTICIPLES
339. The preterite participle \p ^W(hazir ki-ra) 'pre¬
pared', forms the basis for all the past tenses. The perfect
participle j\^ _^\>.(hazir ki-ra-u) 'prepared', is used ad¬
jectively, and may also be used substantively. Examples:
j\ X^^>\>.^>..>jlj(piaweki hazir ki-ra-ii) 'a prepared man';

y^.3'y ^ri*^»-(hazir ki-ra-ii-ek-i) 'a prepared one'; y'^
jljljS (hazir ki-ra-w-an) 'the prepared ones', etc.
Verbal Noun
jl Jj -^l>- (hazir ki-ra-n)
'preparing'
(The action of being prepared.)
A List of Compound Verbs in Common Use
340. It happens very often that one Kurdish dialect em¬
ploys a simple verb where another dialect employs a com¬
pound verb, and vice versa. It is therefore impossible to give
a complete list of compound verbs. In fact, there is no limit
to compound verbs in Kurdish. The following list contains
a number of combinations that are in common use. For the
imperative forms, see 335.
jl_p ^l(amir kirdin) to command, to decree
ö^y jlyl(iqirar kirdin) to confess
ijiy La-»Ui'"2a kirdin) to sign
ö>p .dbl (ishk kirdin) to dry
ijiS .jljUazad kirdin) to free
ji5 4)ljl(awala kirdin) to open
OiS ijXil(ashkara kirdin) to reveal, to expose
[j>P {Jj^ (araq kirdin) to perspire
ö>y î^ (ada kirdin) to pay
ij>p C^vUl(rtaa't kirdin) to obey
ö^y v±xjl(bang kirdin) to call
ö^P j^lj(bawar kirdin) to believe
d^y Oî (bayan kirdin) to reveal, to expose

VERBS 177
(barala kirdin) to set free, to divorce
(bash kirdin) to divide, to suffice
ö^y ■>^y. (bizmar kirdin) to nail
öiy ö^y (bökhtan kirdin) to slander
ö>P Cf.J'. (brin kirdin) to wound

(batal kirdin) to empty, to make idle
ö>? 3%. (blaii kirdin) to scatter
•if^^
(bakhil kirdin) to envy
'jip <J^^f (bezhing kirdin) to sift
(pis kirdin) to soil, to polute
ö>> y (pir kirdin) to fill
(paida kirdin) to find, to gain
(pak kirdin) to cleanse
ij^/ . ■y'.y^. (paighambarati kirdin) to prophesy
(pirsiar kirdin) to' question, to inquire
ö>y^y (töba kirdin) to repent
ö>y ^^ (taslim kirdin) to surrender, to betray
(takht kirdin) to level, to devastate

ö>p^
ö>? '^y (tark kirdin) to quit, to "abandon
ö^yo^'^' (talan kirdin) to rob, to spoil
öiy î«J (ta'lim kirdin) to teach, to discipline
<^ -
0>P '^'Tj' (tarjuma kirdin) to translate, to interpret
ö>y "îyy (tajraba kirdin) to tempt, to try
(taki kirdin) to try, to examine
(ter kirdin) to satisfy

ö>P y
(terr kirdin) to wet, to moisten
y
^y
ijiy (^jlr(tazi kirdin) to mourn, to lament
ij>P ("^ (tam kirdin) to taste
ijip 3\y (tawaii kirdin) to complete
Ö^y "y (tizh kirdin) to sharpen
ö>y *^.^ (ta'rif kirdin) to praise
oiy ^]\5^J(tika le kirdin) to request, to beg
iO>y j^^ (tamir kirdin) to repair
j,>j3 ^,3vJ(tagbir kirdin) to counsel, to advise
ÖiS ^-,<ai"(taqsir kirdin) to withhold
O^y jiu (tayin kirdin) to appoint, to ordain
to>P y^ (tekal kirdin) to mix
oiy jLi(timar kirdin) to curry
ö>p CJ^"(sabit kirdin) to prove
oiy C>_;ş- (jurat kirdin) to dare
ö^y '**',^?-(jarima kirdin) to fine
O^y Oj»-(jiit kirdin) to plow, to unites
ö>y Sf:(]^^ kirdin) to separate
j:>^ Ja>-(haz kirdin) to wish, to want, to like
O^y cIl-»_/»- (hurmat kirdin) to honor, to obey
O^y «)L-.»- (hisab kirdin) to count, to figure
Oiy iiia- (hifiz kirdin) to protect, to- guard
ö^y îSo- (hukim kirdin) to command
iJ->^C-°j>^^(hukiimat kirdin) to govern, to rule
O^y (j^^(khalas kirdin) to finish, to save
ö^y C^-i*- (khizmat kirdin) to serve
C)>y 3 (khalq kirdin) to create
ö^y y»- (khali kirdin) to empty

VERBS 179
ö^P v >*" (kharap kirdin) to ruin, to destroy, to
corrupt
Oi'P 7-^ (kharj kirdin) to expend
{jip (^j>-(khwe kirdin) to salt
Oiy jlji-(khwar kirdin) to bend, to make crooked
ijip iJI,iijbl^(khwahisht kirdin) to request, to beg
{jiy^ lo (dua kirdin) to pray, to supplicate
iO>P i5j,>(dark kirdin) to feel
oiy y oi(da bar kirdin) to dress, to put on
oiy Aiî (dilöpa kirdin) to drip, to leak
lO^j- 3\^ (diar kirdin) to reveal, to show, to make
appear
ö^P (Sji(dizi kirdin) to steal
ö^y y_ 0^.5(dast pe kirdin) to begin
oiy o^ji (darman kirdin) to doctor
oiy C^ji (drust kirdin) to make, to create
ö^P yii (daftar kirdin) to register
ö^y C-^lj (I'ast kirdin) to straighten, to level, to
rectify
O^y (j^b (rash kirdin) to blacken
O^y y>^3 (razi kirdin) to satisfy, to make willing
öip jljj (rawan kirdin) to send away
ö>y <^3J (rut kirdin) to undress, to rob
O^y >3 (rad kirdin) to refuse, to put away
ö^ A \-3 (rija kirdin) to request, to beg
0^^^ ( (ruhum kirdin) to have mercy

Oiy ^^jfraqs kirdin) to dance
ijiy S3^3 (rawi kirdin) to hunt
ö>y \yj (riswa kirdin) to reproach
O^y iîJ (ziyad kirdin) to increase, to multiply, to
grow
îy eJi>j(zeda kirdin) (same meaning as the above)
O^y lj j (zina kirdin) to fornicate
O^y 333 (zor kirdin) to force, to do violence
Ö>P j' j (î'-in kirdin) to saddle
ji .3 p3 (zam kirdin) to blame, to scold
oiy j^lj'(salaii kirdin) to salute, to greet
ö>y i} eJL9e->'(sajda le kirdin) to worship, to bow down
before
0'*^ r-ljj'(söakh kirdin) to plaster
ji 5 y (sair kirdin) to prominade, to look at (for
pleasure)
oi P O ,L^(siyarat kirdin) to visit, to pay homage to
Oiy (JU»L-- (siyahat kirdin) to prominade, to picnic
O^y ^y (spi kirdin) to whiten, to white-wash
O^y >y (sard kirdin) to cool
ö> P oiy (sauda kirdin) to make a trade, to buy

y .
Oip y" (shar kirdin) to fight, to war
oiy C-jlxi (shikayat kirdin) to accuse, to complain
ö>P yy (shirin kirdin) to sweeten
ö^P y (shii kirdin) to marry
ö^P «-^1;^ (sharia't kirdin) to judge
ö>P ^;Xi(shukir kirdin) to praise, to thank
O^y .,r^(sabir kirdin) to wait, to be patient

VERBS 181
ö>y TtL^ (sulh kirdin) to make peace
(jiy f-L*(sagh kirdin) to heal
Ö>P i»j^(zaiit kirdin) to subject
ji ,3 jy (zarar kirdin) to loose, to injure
jiy t (talab kirdin) to request, to pray
j,> 3 P}ê> (zulm kirdin) to oppress
j,5 ^ OiW(adat kirdin) to accustom
ö^P ^^(a'rz kirdin) to request, to beg
ji X^ l*c. (a'mal kirdin) to act, to perform
ji .-> (^lilc(azab kirdin) to torment
ji^5 yP^ (ajiz kirdin) to distress, to trouble, to pro¬
voke
oiy ^y (a'zim kirdin) to digest
ji_p yy (a'zil kirdin) to depose
oiy C^(ghaibat kirdin) to slander
ji_^3 ^^y. (gharq kirdin) to sink
ji^ ^j (fer kirdin) to teach
ji .3 ^^(fikir kirdin) to think
ji_p JJ (fel kirdin) to cheat
(jiP C^-5(qimat kirdin) to price
jli_p |».i> (qum kirdin) to sink
ji J ji (qad kirdin) to fold
0> J J?-^ (qabiil kirdin) to accept
ji ,5 yi^ (qabz kirdin) to constipate
Oip iPpy (qarz kirdin) to borro'W, to credit
oiy j^lJ (qalafi kirdin) to fatten
jiy jO (kar kirdin) to work

ji^ ^ (kam kirdin) to diminish, to decrease

ji^ Oy (kurt kirdin) to shorten
ji^ j3fkun kirdin) to perforate, to punch
d^y Jp(kaiil kirdin) to skin
jiy Jii (kifil kirdin) to lock
Oip >_i3 (kaf kirdin) to foam
ijiy dS^y (kömag kirdin) to help
ji^S ^ (kifir kirdin) to blaspheme
ji^ « p (garm kirdin) to heat, to warm
d^p ^j. (^^^^ kirdin) to thresh
Oip dLi (gasik kirdin) to sweep
ji P 7-L3 (gunah kirdin) to sin
O^P SP(S^^ kirdin) to tie

jip jJ (lat kirdin) to piece, to break
ji^ jli! (laghaii kirdin) to bridle
ji^ ojL.(mara kirdin) to marry
Oiy ^ (man'a kirdin) to prevent, to stop
ji^ ^^-(mach kirdin) to kiss
ji^ J^r* (mishar kirdin) to saw
ö^J^ jt^ (mohor kirdin) to seal
O^y çj^JlJL.(muqaddas kirdin) to sanctify
ö^p Jjy«»(ma'zûl kirdin) to depose, to degrade
jiP dJl^ (mashk kirdin) to practice, to train
jiy zy (march kirdin) to race, to bet
Oiy '3>_y (niiezh kirdin) to worship, to pray
ijiy ^y (narm kirdin) to soften
jiy ci*i (na'lat kirdin) to curse

VERBS 183
(na'l kirdin) to shoe
O^py 0^:ê (nishan kirdin) to show, to mark, to espouse
ö>y S3ê (newi kirdin) or
ö>P^ (} (nazim kirdin) to humiliate, to abase
jip jl; (nan kirdin) to bake
j>P y::P3 (wasiyat kirdin) to bequeath
Ö>P >33 (wurd kirdin) to crumb, to grind
(wa-bir kirdin) to remember
jiS eXC3 (wada kirdin) to promise, to appoint
/ .1 (weran kirdin) to ruin, to desolate

j>P o^y.3
0>?^Ö3 (win kirdin) to conceal, to hide
ji/d)ij (wishk kirdin) to dry
0>P 33^ (hawar kirdin) to cry (for help)
j^P ^y^ (hilak kirdin) to destroy, to annihilate, to
kill
y 1
Oip oXj b (yarida kirdin) to help
eyip ilW (chak kirdin-a-wa) to heal
oy^P 3^ (khilijr kirdin-a-wa) to roll
oyip '^\^ (awala kirdin-a-wa) to open
oy>?, > (khir kirdin-a-wa) to assemble, to gather
oyip 3^. (blaii kirdin-a-wa) to scatter
oy>y Sfr (jiie kirdin-a-wa) to separate
(fer biin) to learn
(dakhil biin) to enter
oy ^y (siiar bun) to ride
oy Ijl (awa bun) to set (as the sun)
öy jV^>* (hoshiyar biin) to watch

jy I Ilc.(ghalib bun) to conquer
jy Ö3 (win biin) to disappear
jy yyy^ (a'jayib bun) to wonder
ey y C^ 3 (rast bûn-a-wa) to rise up
ojijj y^ (bar bûn-a-wa) to fall down
jli ^Jljo (ta'lim dan) to teach
jb jliLJ (nishan dan) to show
Cyi y <Zî(dast le dan) to touch
jli <-^y (jiiab dan) to answer
jli dSj} (ling dan) to run
0'^ JJ' (awir dan) to turn around
(j'-' y, '~y (gap pe dan) to mock, to revile
jli oj|jl|~"(se-dar-a dan) to crucify
jli c$y (gre dan) to tie
jli <^^(fre dan) to throw, to cast (away)
jb J I (aii dan) to water
jb jJiil(izin dan) to permit
jb ool (azyat dan) to trouble, to pain
3î\i i3j>-(chiik da-dan) to kneel (down)
yP jP OJ (wa-gir kaiitin) to find, to get
yy 33303 (wa-zhijr kaûtin) to enter
yy 3io3 (wa-dar kaiitin) to leave, to go "but
j"jS t^ljioj (wa-diiai kautin) to follow
yp yo3 (wa-sar kaiitin) to ascend, to go up
O^p y^ (nafas keshan) to breathe
jvLj Cjj^.^ (hasrat keshan) to long for
jlLp C-Jil (azyat keshan) to suffer

VERBS 185
jVi.p 0'*>-j (zahmat keshan) to labor
(zarar keshan) to lose, to suffer loss
(kham keshan) to worry
(keshki keshan) to guard, to watch
j\la jUjI (inian henan) to believe
jL-A ÔOJ (wa-bir henan) to recall, to remember
ju»* -.i-oj (wa-khabar henan) to awaken
öL>* ,9- 4) (ba je hanan) to keep, to hold
(hurmat girten) to honor, to obey
/J ,3 Ol -^ fmirat girtin) to inherit
(giö girtin) to listen
(san girtin) to review (soldiers or cavalry)
(masi girtin) to fish
jl* i_^> Wc- (a'jayib man) to be astonished
jU ö^j (waq man) to marvel
(wa-bir hatin) or
e«l)vA yo3 (wa-bir hatin-a-wa) to remember
jTUli ^. (»^j (ruhum pe da-hatin) to pity, to" have mercy
on
(la bir chiin) to forget

03"!: y.
oyr
dL" (tek chiin) to be perplexed, to come to
naught
6--** yr
4) (ba je heshtin) or
4) (ba je eshtin) to leave
j:>3^y (kham khwardin) to worry
j>j^y X (swind khwardin) to swear, to take an oath

y
ö^3^y ^_.. ,w A.^ I (shikast khwardin) to be defeated

O^ y u^ (dill siitan) or
j\>^ dj> j(zig siitan) to pity
j*-^J Cj^j*" (khösh wistin) to love
341. The dialectic differences play a great part in these
verbs, as the dialectic peculiarity may either appear in the
noun or the adjective employed, or the auxiliary verb may not
be the same. Examples: One dialect may prefer to employ
jip C'*J>- (hurmat kirdin) for 'to honor', 'to obey', an¬
other dialect may prefer to use yp C..^^,- (hurmat girtin) ;
one dialect may use ^ (gham), (Arab.) for ^p^ (kham),
(Kurd.), and one may employ o^y J- (kham keshan) and
another may employ jijlî- ^ (kham khwardin) 'to worry',
etc. One dialect may employ the auxiliary without the suffix
03 (wa). Examples: ji_p j>l (blaii kirdin) 'to scatter',
and another dialect may nearly invariably add the suffix and
say oyiy j% (blaii kirdin-a-wa).
These dialectic differences, however, are not essential, and
they will gradually disappear as the better and purer Kurdish
forms become better known and more established.
Conjugation of the Verb 'to have'
342. There is no distinct verb in Kurdish corresponding
to our verb 'to have'; but possession is expressed by combin¬
ing the 'suffix pronouns' (see 162, 203) with the stems of
the various tenses of the verb 'to be' or the verb 'to exist'.
There are two forms, the 'independent form', or when the
verb stands alone, and the 'dependent forrii', or when the verb
is used in a sentence. Examples:. 4^*. (ha-m-a") 'I have'

VERBS 187
(lit. 'there is or exists to me') ; 4^ j^'. \5 (nan-(i)m ha-ya)
'I have bread' (lit. 'bread is or exists to me').
In the 'independent form' the pronominal suffixes are in¬
serted between the prefix i (da), > (bi), or a (ha), or the
negative particle ", or 1; , and the stem of the various tenses
of the verb.
In the 'dependent form' the pronominal suffixes are ap¬
pended to the preceding word or object of the verb, and the
naked tense stems of the verb follows, just as in the employ¬
ment of any other transitive verb. (See 205, 206 and 208.)
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
4«ji (ha-m-a) I have aJLa (ha-man-a) we have
4lA (ha-t-a) thou hast 4J \l«> (ha-tan-a) you have
j-1^* (ha-ya-t-î)
4)L«. (ha-yan-a) they have
he, she, it has
343 The negative is formed by substituting J (ni) for the
prefix A (ha). Examples: 4^ (ni-m-a) 'I have not'; 41^
(nî-t-a) 'thou hast not'; ^-^^ (ni-ya-t-i) 'he, she, it has not'.
344. The positive and negative 'dependent forms' are 4.»
(ha-ya) and .u (ni-ya). Examples: 4.» ^^lU (mal-(i)m
ha-ya) '1 have a house', 4;«, o!L> (mal-(i-)t ha-ya) 'thou
hast a house', 4^ JU (mal-i ha-ya) 'he, she, it has a house',
4.A jUU (mal-man ha-ya) 'we have a house', 4^» jLlu

(mal tan ha-ya) or 4.* jlU (mal-û ha-ya) 'you have a
house', and 4.» jUU (mal-yan ha-ya) 'they have a house'.

For the negative 40 (ni-ya) is employed instead of a^ (ha¬
ya). Examples: 4J jJL. (mal-(i)m ni-ya) 'I have not a
house', or 'I have no house', 4J Û (mal-(i)t ni-ya) 'thou
hast not a house', 4J JU (mal-I ni-ya) 'he, she, it has not a

house', etc. ,
Future Tense
Singular Plural
^î (da-m-be) ç_jj jUi (da-man-be)
I shall have we shall have
yCji (da-t-be) (_j;jl"i (da-tan-be) or

thou wilt have yji (da-u-be)
you will have
y (î(da-i-be)
^j\)_i(da-yan-be)
he, she, it will have
they will have

particle J or \, for the prefix ^ da). Exan^ple: ^
(na-m-be) 'I shall not have', etc.
346. The positive and negative 'dependent forms' are yi
(da-be) and ^ (na-be). Examples: î ^lU (inal-(i)m

da-be) I shall have a house', ^ ^]U (mal-(i)m na-be) 'I
shall not have a house'> etc.
Imperfect Tense
Singular Plural
j-y»i (da-m-bii)
Jl jUi (da-man-bii)
I was having we were having
yC)i (da-t-bii)
j> jl"i(da-tan-bii) or
thou wast having jjji(da-ii-bii)
you were having

VERBS 189
y(Ji (da-i-bil) îj\.i(da-yan-bö)
he, she, it was having they were having
347, . The negative is formed by prefixing the negative par¬
ticle ; or \j to i (da) and inserting the 'suffix pronouns'
between them. Examples : yXi (na-m-da-bû) 'I was not
having', yiCJ^ (na-t-da-bi'i) 'thou wast not having',
^5 ;: (na-i-da-bû) 'he, she, it was not having', etc. The
positive and negative 'dependent forms' are yi (da-bii) and
ypi (na-da-bû). Examples: yi ^JU (mal-(i)m da-bû) 'I
was having a house', yX y\* (mal-(i)m na-da-bû) *I was
not having a house', etc.
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
y.a> (ha-m-bii) I had j> jL-A (ha-man-bû)
we had
j>0* (ha-t-bii) thou hadst .) jLft (ha-tan-bti)
you had
»j^*(ha-î-bû) ^ jL*(ha-yan-bû)
he, she, it had they had
particle > or li for the prefix a (ha). Examples: y^
(na-m-bil) 'I had not', etc. The positive and negative 'depend-^
ent forms' are y or ^.a and y . Examples: y Û
(mal-(i)m bu) or â JU (mal-(i)m (ha-bû) 'I had a house'.
y jrlU (mal-(i)m na-bii) 'I had not a house', etc.

190 , A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
ey.^ (ha-m-bû-a) ey j\»A (ha-m§n-bû-a)
I have had we have had
oyC^ (ha-t bû-a) oyj\lA (ha-tan-bii-a)
thou hast had 3'ou have had
oyy (ha-î-bû-a) oy jLa (ha-yan-bii-a)
he, she, it has had they have had
particle ', or \; for the prefix a (ha). Example: oj-J
(na-m-bii-a) 'I have not had', etc. The positive and negative
'dependent forms' are ey or o^-* and oy . Examples:
"ii («-'U (mal-(i)m bû-a) or oy.A JU (mal-(i)m ha-
bii-a) 'I have had a house', JU (mal-(i)m na-bii-a)

"3:' r
'I have not had a house', etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
y3' (ha-m-bii-bû) 3'.3'.ö ^* (ha-man-bii-bii)
I had had we had had
J) jjC-A (ha-t-bû-bii) yy j\:a (ha-tan-bû-bû)
thou hadst had you had had
jf jj^Â (ha-i-bû-bii) yy jLa (ha-yan-bii-bû)
he, she, it had had they had had
particle '> or li for the prefix a (ha). Example: yyi
(na-m-bii-bii) 'I had not had', etc. The positive and negative
'dependent forms' are yy or yÂ and yy . Examples :

VERBS 191
yy JU (mal-(i)m bû-bû)or yy^ p^ (mal-(i)m ha-
bii-bû) 'I had had a house', yy jir'L. (ma!-(i)m na-bu-bu)
'I had not had a house', etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
Singular Plural
(_j-»J (bi-m-be) J jUj (bi-man-be)
I may or might have we may or might have
j_^Cj(bi-t-be) ^jb (bi-tan-be) or
thou mayest have yy (bi-û-be)
you may or might have
yy (b-i-be) ^ jLj(bi-yan-be)
he, she, it may or might have they may or might have
parricle j or \j for the prefix j (bi). Example: ^^ 430 j
(ranga na-m-be) 'I may or might not have', etc. The positive
and negative 'dependent forms' are y or ^y and ^ . Ex¬
amples: y JU 4X!j (ranga mal-(i)m be) or^ ^JU -66j
(ranga mal-(i)m ha-be) 'I may or might have a house',
y p>JU 4X;j(ranga mal-(i)m na-be) 'I may or might not
have a house', etc.
352. The prefix a (ha) may be substituted for the prefix
J (bi). Examples: ^_y^ (ha-m-he), yC^ (ha-t-ht),
yy (ha-i-be), etc. ; but the prefix > (bi) is the better form.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
. yy*i (h'i-m-hû-hc) \ j_j)y jU (bi-man-bû-be)
I may have had 1 we may have had

yyC^. (bi-t-bû-be) (_jjjj jL) (bi-tan-bii-be)
thou mayest have had you may have had
iJ.y.J. (b-i-bû-be) y.)\'^-. (bi-yan-bii-be)

he, she, it may have had they may have had
Note. The prcfi.K a (ha) may be employed instead of the pre¬

fix J (bi). (See 352.)
particle 5 or iJ for the prefix j or a . Example: jy^
(na-m-bii-be) 'I may not have had', etc. The positive and
negative 'dependent forms' are yy or ,^ ,.a and . \
Examples: y y. ^yi\^ 430 j (ranga mal-(i)m bii-be) or
y^ p\j. 4X,j (ranga mal-(i)m ha-bu-be) 'I may have a

house', yy |»IU 4>Jj (ranga mal-(i)m na-bii-be) 'I may
not have a house', etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
yy3-^_ (bi-m-bii-bû- .. yyy,j^, (bi-man-bû-
be) I might have had bii-be) we might have had
CSJ^;.?;^ (bi-t-bû bû be) yy,3\^'-^. (bi-tan-bû-

thou mightest have had bö-be) you might have had
yyyy (bi-I-bii-bu-be) yyyo^, (bi-yan-bû-
he, she, it might have had bû-be) they might have had
Note. The prefix (ha) may be employed instead of the pre-

fix (bi). (See 352.)
354. The negative is formed by employing the negative
particle \ or \; instead of the prefix j (bi) or a (ha). Ex¬
ample: yyyP 4XJj (ranga na-m-bil-bû-be) 'I might not
have had', etc. The positive and negative 'dependent forms'

VERBS 193
are jyy o.r yy3-_ and yy.y Examples :
i\f.;f. -^Û 4XJj (ranga mal-(i)m bu-bu-be) or 4>..ij
^^jyjÂ (»-'U(ranga mal-(i)m ha-bii-bii-be) 'I might have had
a house', (_j;j'j-> *1U 4Xij (ranga mal-(i)m na-bii-bii-be) 'I
might not have had a house', etc.
CONDITIONAL MOOD
355. For the present tense, see 251 and 288,
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
L») (bi-m-ba) if I had I) JW) (bi-man ba) if we had
\C^ (bi-t ba) "(jLj (bi-tan ba)
if thou hadst if you had
\y (b-i ba) \)jLj (bi-yan ba)
if he, she it had if they had
Note. The prefix a (ha) may be substituted for j (bi),
356. The negative is formed by employing j or \j instead
of the prefix > or a . Example : Lj y I (agar na-m-ba)
'if I had not', etc. The positive and negative 'dependent

Jy
forms' are b or La and Ij Examples: 'Lj JU p (agar
\ ^
mal-(i)-bi-ba) or La JU S (agar mal-(i)m (ha-ba) 'if I had
I (agar mal-(i)m na-ba) 'if I had not
a house', etc.
Singular Plural
l)^~,j (bi-m-bû-ba) lyjUj (bi-man-bii-ba)
if I had had, or if we had had, or
if I should have had if we should have had

\y<^, (bi-t-bii-ba) \j;ö 4 (bi-tan-bii-ba)

if thou hadst had, or if you had had, or
if thou shouldst have had if you should have had
\yy (b-i-bii-ba) \)y jU (bi-yan-bii-ba)
if he, she, it had had, or if they had had, or
if he, she, it should have had if they should have had
Note. The prefix a (ha) may be substituted instead of i

(bi).
particle j or \j for the prefix ; or a . Example: \) y
(agar na-m-bii-ba) 'if I had not had', etc. The positive and
negative 'dependent forms' arc \iy or \)j-* and \jy
Examples: \iy JU p (agar mfil-(i)m bi-bii-ba) or
Vj.jb JU y I (agar mai-(i)m ha-bii-ba) 'if I had had a
house', or 'if I should have had a house', \jj.! JU y
(agar mal-(i)m na-bii-ba) 'if I had not had a house', or 'if I
should not have bad a house', etc.
OPTATIVE MOOD
Preterite Tense
Singular Plural
4)L«j (bi-m-ba-ya) 4) \) jU> (bi-man-ba-ya)
would that I had would that we had
\\<Z^ (hi-t-ba-ya) At l) jt) (bi-tan-ba-ya)
would that thou hadst would that you had
..ij. (h-i-ba-ya) 4)\) j\o (bi-yan-ba-ya)
would that he, she, it had would that they had
Note. The prefix a (ha) may be employed instead of y (bi).
358. The negative is formed by substituting ; or \i for the

VERBS 195
prefix { or A . Example: 4jLj \y (birya na-m-ba-ya)
'would that I had not', etc. The positive and negative 'de¬
pendent forms' are 4)_L) or 4) La and 4jL) . Examples:
4jiLj jÎU \jy (birya mal-i) m bi-ba-ya) or 4) La JU ^j j
(birya mal-(i)m ha-ba-ya) 'would that I had a house', IJU 1» j

1 . . . ir ->
4)U) (birya mal-(i)m na-ba-ya) 'would that I had not a
house', etc.
Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
4(\>y>*j (bi-m-bii-ya-ya) 4jlyjUj (bi-man-bii-ya-
would that I had had ya) would that we had had.
..3l^'. (bi-t-bii-ya-ya) 4)\)y jLi (bi-tan-bii-ya-
would that thou hadst had ya) would that you had had
.y.iS- (h-i-bii-ya-ya .y. uU (bi-yan-bii-ya- ''"
would that he, she, it had had ya) would that they had had
Note. The prefix (ha) may be employed instead of (bi).

359. The negaltive is formed by substituting ', or \i for
the prefix j or a . Example: aj\,^.^ \,y (birya na-m-
bti-ya-ya) 'would that I had not had', etc. The positive and
negative 'dependent forms' are Aj\}y or 4) I â and 4j\> J
Examples: A>\>y JU \iy (birya mal-(i)m bi-bû-ya-ya) or
..3'^ (»-'U \_y (birya mal-(i)m ha-bû-ya-ya) 'would that

I had had a house', AA^y ^^lU \i_y (birya mal-(i)m na-
bii-ya-ya) 'would that I had not had a house', etc.
Pluperfect Tense
Singular Plural
..3:*'. (bi-m-bii-ba-ya) 4)l»y jU) (bi-man-bii-ba-ya)
would that I had had would that we had had

4)\)yC.j (bi-t-bii-ba-ya) 4)\)yjL) (bi-tan-bii-ba-ya)
would that thou hadst had would that you had had
aA yy (b-i-bii-ba-ya) 4jl)y jL) (bi-yan-bii-ba-ya)
would that he, she, it had had would that thev had had
Note. The prefix a (ha) may be employed instead of J (bi).
particle j or li for the prefix > or a . Example: by
4j^\)^,^ (birya na-m-bii-ba-ya) 'would that I had not had', etc.
The positive and negative 'depdiident forms' are A>\iy or
4)\)j.jb and Ai\iy . Examples: A^y _]U I j
(birya mal-(i)m bi-bii-ba-ya) or AjL^^j* JU \>y (birya
mal-(i)m ha-bii-ba-ya) 'would that I had had a house',
Aihy )U uy (birya mal-(i)m na-bu-ba-ya) 'would
that I had not had a house', etc.
Note. The perfect and pluperfect have different forms, but the
same signification.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular Plural
y*i\ (ba bi-m-be) J jw>\> (ba bi-man be)
let me have I let us have !
4) Of (bi-t ba) 4) jL) (bi-tan ba)
have thou ! have ye\
y yî (ba b-i be) J jL) 1) (ba bi-yan be)
let him, her, it have! let them have !
Note. The prefix a (ha) may be employed.instead of ; (bi).
(See 352.)
.361. The negative is the same as the negative of the pres¬
ent subjunctive, prefixed by the exhortative particle \j'(ba)

ADVERBS 197
in the 1st and 3rd persons of both numbers. The 2nd person
sing, and plur. employ the prohibitive particle a (ma). Ex¬
amples: 4)0- (ma-t-ba) 'have thou not!', or 'possess thou
not !' ; Aij\L> (ma-tan-ba) 'have ye not !', or 'possess ye not !'.
Verbal Noun
j^.A (ha-biin)
'having'
or 'possessing'
CHAPTER VI
ADVERBS
362. An adverb is a word which qualifies a verb, an ad¬
jective, or another adverb.
In Kurdish there are no adverbs, properly so called; but
nouns with or without prepositions, and pronouns, and espe¬
cially adjectives, are used adverbially. Consequently, it is im¬
possible to give a complete list of Kurdish adverbs.
Many of the adverbs and adverbial expressions given below
are borrowed from other languages, and as might be expected,
many of these have been modified and corrupted.
An attempt is made to classify them; but such an attempt
must always be somewhat unsatisfactory, as the same adverb
in one connection may be an adverb of place, in another, of
time, etc. In the following list there are adverbs of 'manner
and quality', 'number', 'time', 'place and order', and there are
also affirmative and negative adverbs.

363. Adverbs of Manner and Quality
(_^l^x:il 4j (ba ashkarai) openly, publicly
^L-Ia 4)(ba hasani) easily
y'3^ 4j (ba jûani) beautifully, prettily
v5jlyi--4) (ba khöraî) in vain, unavailingly, freely
03 y (har-wa) freely
(S3i *f (ba dizi) stealthy, secretly
^ J 4j (ba wini) secretly
y}J>- <J (ba kharapi) badly, ruinously
^luic. 4) (ba a'qili) wisely
y^3 "^ (ba rahati) comfortably
j_j3 Î I" 4j (ba talökai) hurridly
S33 '^, (ha ziiî) quickly
y 3 j^ 4j (ba sar û bin) topsy-turvy
(_^lj 4j (ba razi) willingly
^>lj\; 4) (ba na-razi) unwillingly
^j *; (ba riqi) angrily
tÔj" 4j (ba fundi) harshly
^vl? 4) (ba qayimi) strongly, severely, strictly
j^ !>- 4» (ba chaki) or
y^ 4j (ba qanji) or
^y^ 4) (ba khasi) pleasantly, well
J-^ji- 4j (ba khöshî) gladly
yy ^, (ba sharmi) or
^"3 33 "^ (ha rii rashi) shamefully, ashamed
ÎÎS 4j (ba kasti) pretendingly
c$i_^ Ji 4) (ba dil sardi) uinterestingly, carelessly

ADVERBS 199
j_j^ u <> (ba baki) or
5 I) J 43. (ba be baki) unconcerningly
^_^" Ji 4j (ba dil tangi) or

(Sy^ *; (ha ajizi) or
P U»>- 4) (ba khamnaki)
yS^-^s- 4) (ba ghamgini) sorrowfully, worringly
Sy ^. (ha sairi) interestingly
(CjljJ "^. (ba tawawi) completely
iy>_3y^ ''f (ba jiireki) after a sort
(^Jla 4> (ba haidi) or
(Sj-fi "^ (ba sabiri) slowly, quietly, patiently
^j»A 4j (ba hiirai) tumultuously
^y^ Ai (ba salamati) safely, peacefully
(^jUeK) 4j (ba yekjari) thoroughly, completely
(j,\3i (dtiai) or
(^y-\ (akhiri) finally
\jj (taniya) or
^yi (batani) alone
\aj (wa-ha) so, in that manner
o,x»i (pekawa) together

yy*"*
J5 i (dagal) with, together with
i»i (qat) not at all
364. Adverbs of Number
dUlf (galak)
jj3(zör)
. very, much, many
eXp) (zeda)
i\,3(ziad)
-^:* (hend)
dla:.A (hendek) ^
-Uar (chand)
. some, several, a few
/dX_X>- (chandek)
<y^. (haz)
dXpîM (bazek)
oJkJjl (awanda) j
,, , r so much (as much as)
oaijh (henda) J
j^(kam) ] ^^.^^j^
dJuS (kamek) 1
y-y ^ '
,«J0 (kam-kam) a very little
a~: (has) enough
(hich) nothing
y._ (Pitir)
jj'jjj (zortir)
_îif(galaktir) more
yeXJ (zedatir)
y"il)3 (ziadtlr)
yS (kamtir) less
Cjy Oy>-(jût jiit) pairs
Ji Ji(dödö) twos
y y (se se) threes
365. Adverbs of Pla ce and Order
c$jS(kûe)
t5^^(l'kûe) where
"^ yr 3^ (aii je ka)

Sp j!(hö kue) whither
ADVERBS 201
ijp 4) (la kiie) whence
oy\ (era)
here
oJ (I'era)
oy) y (bo era) hither
oyi 4J (la era) hence
(^jl (awe)
^jP (I'awe) there
J (I'e)
t^jl y (bo awe) thither
^jl 4! (la awe) thence
y y (har je)
di*..*- Â (har je-ek) everywhere, wherever
y ^ (hamii je)
y- rtjA (hich je) nowhere
C^3 S^ (lai rast) to the right
<^y: Si (lai chap . to the left
S3^ (newe)
t^yj:! (I'newe)
in the midst
b (^yj ei (da newe da)
j>,lje^ (newa-raste)
^1 (l'neû)
among, midst
li y ei (da neû da)
S333 (zhûre)
t^jj^l (l'zhûre) inside, within
\i (^jj3 û^ (da zhiire da)

(Sji (dare)
(^jJi! (I'dare)
. outside, without
ftjji (dar-a-wa)
3i As (ba dar)
Sy (sare)
on, upon, above
Sy^ (I'sare)
333" J', (bar-a-zhur)
33'}oyi (rbar-a-zhiir) > above
t^j'jj* '' haiiraze)
O'. (bin)
j,J(rbin)
yJ} (zhir)
beneath, under, below
y^Cl'^hir)
yjoy (bar-a-zhir)
y'jojS (I'bar-a-zhir)
c5jl,^(khware)
\ below
t^j'jiJ (I'khware)
^_yLo (pesh)
^ji-J (I'pesh) before, in front of
j;(bar)
y>\ (pash)
ji.LJ(rpash)
Oij (pisht)
CjJ (I'pisht) after, behind
(5lji(dûaî)
(îjjJ (l'dûai)
t^l jioj (wa-dûaî)

ADVERBS 203
S33^ daiirai) 1
around
S33'^ I'daiirai) j
S33^33> daiiran-daûrai) "1

round about
S33^ 33^ I'daiiran-daiirai) J
S^ 3\ aii lai) this way
S^ ) l'aû lai) that way
33> dor) far
S33> "^ la diire)

'from afar
o333> "^ 'la diir-a-wa)
S3y höwaî)
1 yonder
S33^ l'höwaî)
dXy nezik) near
tanisht)
Oil) Ttanisht)
beside
^l^4J la qaraghi)
t?jL5'4J la kinari)
barambar) opposite
y^. baine) 1
r between
mabaine)
366. Adverbs of Time
u-j jl y har awista) or
' o^\ al-an) just now
u-jjV awista)
now
VLjjI ua hata awista) until now
\l»J jl 43 la awista)
*j\l*jjl 4] la awîsta-wa)
} henceforth, from now on
y'X) (kange)
(yp^3 (wakhteki)
fy>-3 jl (aii wakhtai ka)

when
cyî (dameki)
43 Ai jl (aii damai ka)
O (ka)
{^"3 J' (ati wakhtai)
y> jl (aii damai)

at that time
jW jl (aii jar)
b S3 oi (da wai da)
d\>3\i (tawek) while
(jx\ (idi) thereupon
ij^. yr (je h'je) immediately
e'y 4J (la mezha) long ago
(hamisha)
*jli (dayim)
always
jLjli (dayiman)
Oi-J j»A (hamii wakht)
Oi-j y (har wakht) -i
y^y^3 y (har wakhteki) j. any time
y^> _;A(har dameki)
JaJ (qat) or
'--* ^* (hich wakht) never
oju" (taza) lately
jj (zû) early
dJkiji (dirang) late

ADVERBS 205
4;;i.j(wakht-a wakht)
3^ jV(i^'" jar)
. sometimes, off and on
if\f(ga ga)
j\j J jV(jar Ö bar)
JLo (pesh)
before
jjlvJ (I'pesh)
U^\ (pash)
JX) (I'pash) } after
j\i\j (pashan)
j\iL!(l'pashan) afterwards, thereupon
S3^ Ji-U (I'pash awai)
jjjl (aûrö) to-day
y jl (aii shau) to-night
(_5jlyl (eware) in the evening
(_$ ai (shawe) in the night
S333 (rözhe) in the day-time
Xst^ (sibhaine) in the morning, to-morrow
lyi"^ 3> (do sibhaine) day after to-morrow
^ly^ y (se sibhaine) after three days
y L) (bayane) in the early morning, at dawn
y y}p (kawaltiine) at tea time
330 y (niwarö) mid-day
jU (nahar) noon
yoy (newa-shaii) midnight
yji (diiene) yesterday
Sj± (pere) day before yesterday

Sy^ ) (basar pere) three daj's ago
j..ftc (a'sir) evening, vesper
Li-»A (heshta) as yet, while as yet
d^(kamek)
dX_^3\j (tawek) a little while
jLji (disan) again
3^ dJlS (galak jar) or
jV 333 (^ör }ûr) or

jW- -C>- (chand jar) often
Sy 1 (akhiri) finally
b Sj>-^ ci (da akhiri da) at last
j_j)jA (hawale) or
IxlÂ ei(da hawale da) in the beginning
^y a] (la hawale) from the beginning
oyy a] (la hawal-a-wa) from the beginning on
j^XjjU (jareki) once, once upon a time
jlX:) (lanakaii) suddenly
jV (bahar) in the spring
jj'jiA (hawin) in the summer
y.\ (paiz) in the autumn
ju^j(zistan) in the winter
JL< jl (aii sal) this year
3 \ (par) last year
Jî (perar) year before last
3'j:^ y, (basar perar) three years ago
(S^\ (abadi) eternally

ADVERBS 207
367. Adverbs of Interrogation
what""
cr?(chi)
iJ(bö)
y] (l'bÖ)
whyi
y; y (bo chi)
y>- jJ (I'bar chi,
jjl>- (chilön)
(j^(chi jûr) how? in what manner?
y>; (chi tarza)
(^/(kûe)
<^^(l'kûe) } where?
t^jj j> (bo kiie) whither ?
ijp 4] (la kue) whence?'
^k/ (kange) when ?
4j,p (kiha) which ?
,XI3 \l* (hata kange) how long?

tS'
Jlo- (chand) how many?, how much?
jji 4) (na qadar) how much?,
C^jl (are) yes?
jLilj (waqiyan) is it true?
ejj3 (köwa) where?
368. Adverbs of Affirmation
Ji (ball)
îl (adi) yes
S3^ (are)
4iJiA (halbata) certainly, of course
y3\ (yaqin) assuredly, truly

jLiI J (waqiyan) really, in fact
O-^ji (driist) truly
d}öy(he shik) no doubt, undoubtedly
43Jj (ranga) perhaps
-,>JLi (bashkam)
(»xii (dashkam)
ii,
^..ô (balki)
yt (-ish) also (Adverbial suffix)
369. Declarative Adverbs
4i (ka)that; yM (ya-ni)namely, to wit
370, Negative Adverbs
4j (na) or I no
yj (na-kher)
iZ,^^3 (zahmat) hardly, with difficulty
Ll7 (taniya) - only
^ (faqat)
43^''(anjaq)
371 Miscellaneous Adverbs
y 3 (wakii) as, like as
Îto (misli)
jy>- (chiliin)
(yp yr (chilöneki)
dJlT (tak) alone, merely
4^^li- (kholasa) in short, consequently
vil>- (hasha) forbid, God forbid!
dL-(tek) together
PREPOSITIONS 209
U (ja) ] therefore, then
Ip-i (da-ja)
l! i (da-na)
(j-i (pas)
y. (has)
CHAPTER VII
PREPOSITIONS
372. There are very few prepositions of Kurdish origin.
Many Turkish, Persian, and Arabic prepositions are employed.
Some prepositions take postpositions, others stand alone;
some are joined to the following word, others are written sep¬
arately; and there are a few prepositional suffixes, -
The following list contains, besides real prepositions, a great
many substantives that are used as prepositions.
373. The prepositions that take postpositions are:
li_ ei (da-da) in Ij _ 4! (la-ra) or
li_ 4j (ba-da) through ej_ 4] (la-a-wa) from, on
]iyA3 (ba-(sar)-da) on
Note.Occasionally we meet with the preposition li 4J (la-

da) for 'in' or 'on'. ej_ 4. (ba-a-wa) for 'in', and \i yoi
(da-neu-da) for 'in'. (See 109-114.)
374. The 'prepositions that are sometimes joined to the
following word are:
J (b') to, by, with (in) f^ (pe-) to, by with
J (l') from (in) f. (bo) for
J (le-) from
Note.The 1 (b') is a contraction of 4. (ba), and retains its
whole signification in its contracted form. The Î (l') is a contrac-

tion of 4) (la), but it has less of the signification 'from', when it is

contracted. ^>_ (pe-) is only joined to the 'suffix pronouns'. y
(bo-) is also joined to the 'suffix pronouns only. (See 99, 103 and
113.)
375. The prepositions that are written separately are :
4j (ba) iSy (ho-e)
to, by, with therefore
y (bo) to, for S3} (I'hö-e)

4I (la) from (in) (^jl _^J (I'bar awai)
y (be) without
y (bar) 333 (zhûr) in, into
before, in front of 33)03 (wa-zhûr)
y (neii) into
(j~;l (pesh)
^ (I'neii)
(JpA (I'pesh)
li y oi (da neii da)
^4] (la bar)
in, into, among
y\l (pash) after
li (Sy oi (da newe da)
^_/L! (I'pash)
b j^jIL^ljoyJ oi(da newa-rasti
y, (pe) da) in the midst, in the middle
t^lji (diiai) 33'J oy (bar-a-zhiir)
(Îj-^J (I'dûaî) above
y_') ey (bar-a-zhir)
C^ljiej (vira-diiai)
below, beneath
y (I'bar) on ac¬
y, (bin)
count of, for the sake of
under, beneath
J^\i. ^ (I'bar khatir)
yi (I'bin)
or
yj (zhir)
^ l^ jf (bo khatir) yJ (I'zhir)
PREPOSITIONS 211
S\ (0 of ^.-av (sabab)
y (sar) because, on account of
on, upon jLJ(rbati).
^ (I'sar) jUJ(l'jeati)
jS i (dagal) or Jjl) 4J (la badal)
JS j(ragal) instead of, in place of
with, together with 4Xi }>-(chûnka)
\Ia (hata) because
until, to 4) 4XW (bajga la) be¬
y (kin) or fore, beside (in preference to)
t>X)(rkin) by the Ji 4j (ba dar) ex¬
side of, with (unto) cepting, outside of
j_j-o (baine) S3y^*- ^^ (1^ hizQrl) be¬
fore, in the presence of

between
jji jly>- (chûar daiir)
y-^'.' (mabaine)
around
w. 4) (la sar)
jjjbjji (daûran-daiir)
J^ (zid) against
y\y (barambar)
Ji,>ö (bahs)
opposite
about, concerning oiJ '*J (la tanisht)
j^ 4) (la sar) beside
576. The prepositional suffixes are
4 (-a) to, unto, into
C5 (-i) to
Note, (Sec 98 and 105.)

CHAPTER VIII
CONJUNCTIONS
377. Most of the Kurdish conjunctions, like the preposi¬
tions, are borrowed from the neighboring tongues. The fol¬
lowing is a classified list of the conjunctions in most common
use.
378. The copulative conjunctions are :
J (Ö) or (wa) and (See 27.) y j(ö or wa-ish) also
^j^(-ish) also (suffix form) â j»A(ham-ham) also
Note. 3 is pronounced (o) when it; connects words in a
phrase, and (wa) when it connects sentence^ or clauses of a sentence,
379. The disjunctive conjunctions are:
U^ (yan) or
oî ö>l(yan-yan) either or
4J 4i (na-na) neither nor
Note. The j\> -I ju_ and 4J 4J are often used with the same
signification.
380. The adversative conjunctions are :
>l(balla) but ^\ 3 (wa ilia)
4^0^ (ballaka) but that otherwise, or else

j<J(lakin)but, û\ij(wayan)
(la) than
furthermore i / , . n
4) (used in comparison)
VI (ilia) Li-A (heshta)
but, or else, except while, while as yet

CONJUNCTIONS 213
jLji (disan) U(naba)

' yet, still, nevertheless lest, for fear that
il. (magar) unless 4S aS^ (bajga la)

fy (nawakû) except, apart from
bL* (mabada)
381. The conditional conjunctions are:
f\ (agar) if yr J\ (agar chi)

4; ^f Kagar na) if not, although, even though
otherwise, lest, or else X^ y (bar chand)
Note.The ^\ requires the verb to be in the conditional mood.

4. fl >r^.f^ . and X.=>: y . may also be classified as ad
versative conjunclions.
382. The casual conjunctions are :
<vf (ka) or p (ku) 43 Uj (waha-ka) so that
VlA (hata) or p l;(takû) 4X.') y: (chûnka)
/LA(hatakû) because, since
'that, so that, in order that v'T' (sabab)
383. The conclusive conjunctions are:
W(ja) \>i (da-na) ^^jl ^J (I'bar awai)
Ui (da-ja) ^^(pas) ' therefore

^(bas) jWjl(aûjar) 4^Û (kholasa) finally
then, therefore, moreover consequently, in conclusion.
La (hata) /La (hatakû) iS-^} (idi)

until, so long as then, thereupon, also
^Vl(ilachi) ^'^ (faqat) only
especially, particularly
CHAPTER IX
INTERJECTIONS
384. Interjections are words which express a sudden and
violent emotion. It should be understood that the interjec¬
tions given in the following list are not all classical, and that
some of them may even be called vulgar.
S\ (ai) O!, Oh! (See 52, 115 and 121)
U' (ayi) ah! (expresses disgust)
j^l (ai-hö)
alas !
^l (akh)
(_$lj (wai) woe !, woe is me !
S^3S\ (ai-wai)
V(ya) O! (expresses attention or
emotion) (See 121)
jlJ Ia (hawar) O my !, mercy !, help !
jIjIa iJ\ (ai hawar)
Jul (aman)
\A(ha) behold!, see!
u jl (awata)
y? (dai) get!, go ahead!, push on!
Lfc yy (dai ha) hurry up \
(Ji y (hai de) go away!, g&t out!
o\ (ba'h)
well done!
p^_ (pakö)
yy\ (afarin) well done ! bravo !

4U\fjlj (barik-alla) {^y) well done!, bless O God
y>3^ (sGs)
hush!, silence!
INTERJECTIONS 215
(haîf) pity!, it's a pity!
(^jlj (zhare) poor thing!
olj (wa'h) wonderful, dear me!.
4ulliLi (mash-alla)
^jl(ökh) Oh, I am glad!
^jl (ökh-aî) Oh, I am glad !, hurrah !
liU- (hasha) God forbid!
41)1 îil.-! (astaghfarulla) God forbid !, God forgive
me!
<U)l\i.> I (insh-alla) please God!, God wilHng!
^«^]| (al ham-laî) or
,4UJU^!l(al hamdu lilla) praise be to God!
A..^s- (a'îba) shame !
e\j (pa'h) or poh!, listen. to that!, look at
that!
dX_ (pak) pshaw !, thrash !, nonsense !
olo (pia'h)
L>-^ (marhaba) hail ! (friendly greeting)
4l!lj(öalla)
4l]\;(billa) > by God!
4Ul"j(ûtaIla) J
CHAPTER X
THE FORMATION OF KURDISH WORDS
Nouns
385. Abstract nouns are generally formed in Kurdish by
adding y.> (yati), (ati), or (it!) to nouns and adjectives. If
the word ends in a consonant, usually 'zir' (i), and occa-

sionally 'zabar' (a), is inserted as a connective vowel. Ex¬
amples: (nouns) (_$-;:; ^ (bab-i-yati) 'fatherhood'; yjp
(kijr-i-yati) 'sonship'; iy3i (döst-i-yatî) 'friendship';
^L)L.il, (insan-i-yati) 'humanity'; ^LjL) (pîaw-i-yatî)
or («Jjî. (piaw-ati) 'manliness'; l^'ji (dizhmin-i-yati)
or yyji (dizhmin-a-yati) 'enmity'; yî- (khola-
yati) 'divinity'; (adjectives) I.^j- (spi-yati) 'whiteness',
y.^ yi (nakhösh-i-yati) 'sickness'; y y y (kiier-i-yati)
'blindness'; (Ppy (tirsh-i-yati) 'sourness'; (<-;'" (taal-i-
yati) 'bitterness'; y"y3^ (drezh-i-yatî) or (drezh-a-yati)
'lengt'h'; ij'-r'y (garm-a-yati) 'heat'.
386. Abstract nouns may also be formed from adjectives
in the Persian way, by employing the ending S (i) or (ai).
Examples: (^;.-- (spi-ai), yy (nakhösh-î), (_^^î (kiier-
i) or (kiier-ai), yy (tirsh-i) or (tirsh-ai), !\J (tal-i), Syj-^
(drezh-ai), yy (garm-ai),
387. Nouns indicating persons who carry on a trade or pro¬
fession, or habitually perform some action, are formed by
adding the syllables jlj (wan) 'keeper', y\ (bar) or jD
(kar), and y (kar) 'doer', 'maker', jb (dar) 'having', 'hold-
mg'' 3\ (haz) 'playing', jU (saz) 'making', aj (band)
'tying', S (gir) 'taker', >-(chî) 'trader', 'employer', etc., to
substantives. Examples :
jl jC'U (bagh-wan) O^JJ^^-,' (baraz-a-wan)
a gardener a swine-herder
jl_ji 3i (dark-a-wan) , jljj\5(qaz-a-wan)
a door-keeper, a porter a goose-herder

FORMATION OF KURDISH WORDS 217
jljlS (ga-wan) jl^kL^ (gûelk-a-wan)
a herdsman (of cattle) a calf-herder
j\y y (bark-a-wan) jLjU^ (sa'at-saz)
a lamb-herder a watch-maker
0^3p^3 (wiishtir-a-wan) ' JuJy>-(jiit-band) or
a camel-driver ^"jr(iöt-ter)
jljjji (tör-a-wan) a plougher, a farmer i
a fisher (with net)

_^;l>Î (asin-gir)
a blacksmith
;L»-\l3 (gunah-bar) or
J \5^L3(gunah-kar) - JC'.j3(zarin-gir)
a sinner a goldsmith
^\5(nan-kar) a baker yp y y (ttittin-chi)
y^*^ (khalas-kar) a tobacconist
a savior yyj (pin-a-chi)
a cobbler
jb 4J';i- (khazina-dar) or
j\Xi \i-(khazna-dar) j^_P> (töp-chi)
an artillerist
a treasurer
jljjU J (qömar-baz)
a gambler
388. Names of trades or professions are formed by adding
y_ (yati), (ati), or (iti), or simply S ('), or (ai), to the
nouns designating the persons who exercise them. Examples :
^;Jl_^l, (bagh-wan-i-yati) or y\y\ (bagh-wan4) 'the

work or trade of a gardener'; ^Jl/ji (dark-a-wan-i-
yati) or y^p 3> (dark-a-wan-i) 'the work or trade of a por¬
ter'; y.^"^ (nan-kar-i-yati) or (^^.X.V. (nan-kar-i) 'the
trade of a baker', etc.

Diminutive Nouns
389. The diminutive in Kurdish is expressed by sufiixes.
The most common suffixes are 4lj (ola) and 4lr (ila), and
y. ' y
sometimes we hear 43 y (izhga). Examples: 4]jjP (kiir-
iila) 'a little boy'; '^yp (kich-öla) 'a little girl'; 4!J3
(zhin-öla) 'a little woman' ; 4S jjL (pîaw-öla) 'a little man'.
In the same way we may use the 4I) (ila) : A^^p (kiir-ila),
41^ (kich-ila), 4IJ3 (zhin-ila), 41) jb (piaw-ila),
etc. Occasionally we hear 43 "yj?^ (kiir-izhga), 43 ",^
(kich-izhga), 43 ^Jj (zhin-Izhga), 4^ ^jjb (piaw-izhga),
etc.
390. When the noun ends in the vowel 3 or ^j, , the same
is usually assimilated by the initial vowel of the diminutive
suffix. Examples : .Jy U» (khan-öla) or 4IJ U- (khan-
ila) 'a small house', instead, of 4J jy U- (khanû-öla) or
4ljy U- (khanii-ila).
391. When the noun ends in \ , the initial vowel of the
diminutive suffix is sometimes assimilated by it. Example:
4]ly (bra-la) 'little brother', instead of 4]jl^)(bra-öla) or
4lly (bra-ila).
392. The Turkish diminutive suffix y:(c\C\) or as^ (cha),
also used in Persian, is sometimes employed in Kurdish. Ex¬
amples: y:\3i (daria-chi) or 4:^l)ji (daria-cha) 'a small

sea', 'a lake'; a:^\ (bagh-cha) 'a small garden', etc.
393. Some nouns have original diminutive forms. Ex¬
amples: 4lvlj_ (pish-ila) 'cat', 4i,jb (kar-ila) 'kid', ' 4l.:^_,>-
(jiij-ila) 'a small chicken', etc. The diminutive 4ljj (rö-la)

FORMATION OF KURDISH WORDS 219
child', as well as (bra-la) 'little brother' (See 391), are
both very affectionate expressions, and are chiefly employed
vocatively.
ADJECTIVES.
394. A great many adjectives are formed in Kurdish by
placing 4, (ba) 'with', and occasionally y>-^ (sahib) 'pos¬
sessor', before the noun. Examples: O/ '4 (ha qowat)
'strong'; C^y ^. (ba ghai-rat) 'zealous'; CAy ^. (ha
jurat) 'brave'; \_,i\ 4. (ba adab) 'polite', etc. In the same
way we often hear Oji ^y^ (sahib qûwat), y>-\.fi

Cj>y (sahib ghairat), Ci\y ^y\^ (sahib jurat), etc.
395. Adjectives are formed from pouns denoting 'material'
by adding ^j\ (awi). Examples: S3^>y. (hard-awi)
'stony'; (^jljii (dar-awi) 'woody', 'wooden'; (^jL^l (asin-
awi) 'irony'; S3^yj (zew-awi) 'silvely'; S3^yj (^^^"

awi) 'golden'; (5j1jja (haûr-awi) 'cloudy'; L$jbj» (^örr-
awi) 'muddy', etc.
396. Adjectives are also formed by adding ^ (i) or the
syllables 41 1 (ana) 'like', -XL. (mand) 'full', jb (dar) 'hav-
ing'> J^J (war) 'possessing', ijli (nak) 'full', 6y (nûk)

'full', jj (zin) 'striking' or 'moulding', to nouns. Examples :
(^3jj (rözh-e) or 4;13jj (rözh-ana) 'daily'; J\j. (sa\-ç.) or
4JNL. (sal-ana) 'yearly'; JO4! ji (döla-mand) 'rich';
iJLî. (kham-nak) 'sorrowful' ; 6y 4^y (tirsa-nûk) 'fear¬
ing' ; y L^T (asman-i) 'heavenly' ; yi I (adam-i) 'human' ;
jUij (riq-dar) 'angry'; jl-XJy (brin-dar) 'wounded';
jU_^^» (hûmed-a-war) 'hopeful' ; j3jji (drö-zin) 'lying'.

397. .Adjectives expressing the want or absence of a thing-
are formed by employing the particle y (be) 'without', 'less',
or \i (na) 'not', 'without', with nouns. Examples : J-*'^ J
(be a'qil) 'unwise' ; O^' y (be qowat) 'weak' ; ejW y (be
chart) 'helpless'; jlji ^j' (be draii) 'fundless', 'penniless';
ry y (be sharni) 'impudent', 'shameless' ; Cy y (be
bakht) 'unfortunate'; t.-'i^ (.5! (he adab) 'impolite'; y^ ij_
(be din) 'irreligious'; <^-y y (be sim) 'wireless'; 4)y j
(be töba) 'impenitent'; CJ-j', y (be minat) 'ungrateful';
iJlli (na-pak) 'unclean', 'impure'; jl3^'' (na-zan) 'ig¬
norant' ; i ..li (na-mard) 'fearing'.
398. Adjectives describing one's nationality or place of
birth are formed by adding ^ (') 'o^' to the noun. Ex¬
amples: y\L>'ip (kur-distan-i) 'of Kurdistan', 'Kurd';
(Sip (kurd-i) 'Kurdish'; J 3'y' (stambiil-i) 'Constan-
tinopolitan' ; y^*^^ (osman-i) 'Turk'; pb e.'J (qara
dagh-i) 'Montenegrin'; i\Jl (alman-i) 'German'; y^y
(iran-i) 'Persian'; ^J.j'' (arab-i) 'Arabic', 'Arabian';
(_j\X) -ol (amrika-i) 'American'.
CHAPTER XI
KURDISH COMPOUND WORDS
399. The Kurdish employs a multitude of compound words,
some of which have been given as illustrating the formation
of Kurdish words in the preceding chapter.
The employment of these compound words, chiefly bor¬
rowed from the Persian, is one of the most beautiful features
of the Kurdish tongue.

KURDISH COMPOUND WÔRDS 221
The following list of compound words illustrates their con¬
struction, and will enable the student to understand other
compound words which he may meet with.
400. Words Formed of an Adjective and a Noun
JUi.î-(khösh-hal) 'happy condition', happy
^î-_^(sar-khösh) 'head-happy', intoxicated
y'333 (rii-rash) "black-face; ashamed
iy33 (rii-spi) white-face', pure, innocent
ijji (dil-rash) "black-hearf, bad, impure
^wji (dil-spi) innocent
iî-Ji(dil-khösh) 'heart-happy; glad
iJl Ji (dil-pak) pure-heart, pure
<_iL«>J^(d'l"Saf) smooth-heart; frank, open
,>^,J,5(dil-sard) "cold-heart; careless, uninterested
,_,__5Ci'Ji (dil-shikast) 'heart-broken; sad

yy-33 (rû-khösh) happy-face; pleasant
jL9j^_p. (khösh-raftar) walking gracefully, mannerly
45,^40 (kapa-gûla) homely (lit. big-nose).
J.psJiJ»(kaif-khö.sh) "happy condition; happy
jlyj JU (mkl-a weran)*house desolate; ruined
yy3 (rash-bakht) 'black-fortune', unfortunate
j, TyjU (ha wir-tirsh) 'sour-dough; leaven
,yyi3 (riden-spi) 'white-beard; elder
>33 y ("""o zard) yellow hair, fair, blonde
^^_^Ji(dil-tang) "narrow-heart; depressed
(_^j^ö,» (bön-khösh) pleasant smell, perfume

401 Words Formed of a Participle and a Noun
jljlS (ga-wan) ox-keeper, herdsman (See 387)
jOC«ai-(khizmat-kar) service-doer, servant
j\i LJ (tama-kar) avarice-doer, avaricious
J OvI*L^ (sanat-kar) art-doer, artificer, tradesman
-^"'iU;r*,(''"'''^t"g'0 inheritance-taker, inheritor, heir

y^3p (karwa-dar) donkey-possessor, caravan
driver
3^-^39 (giö-dar) having ears, listener
3^^0l'' (din-dar) having religion, religious

jU>^9 (qarz-dar) having debt, debtor
X-L)(na'l-band) shoe-tyer, horse-shoer
_)\S 4)y (töba-kar) penance-doer, penitent
jlS lij (zina-kar) forication-doer, fornicator
^J4liJ (takhta-band) board-tying, ceiling
3y 0^33^ (karwan-kiizh) caravan-killer. Morning star

pyj\s (bang-kar) cry-maker, cryer, herald
y 3\ (bar-gir) load-taker, caravan horse or mule

jP jl (bar-gin) full load, riding horse
__;.s3 ^Û-(kholla-gir) God-taker, unfortunate,

punished
402 Words Formed of Two Nouns
jb.i^ (kurd-i-stan) country of the Kurd, Kurd¬

istan
jt-jy (kue-i-stan) country of the mountain,

mountain-pi ateau (place of summer camp¬
ing and feeding)

KURDISH COMPOUND WORDS 223
j->-jb (dar-chin) china-wood, cinnamon
\j>:y (pe-chira) light-foot, candlestick
4i4X.iU (manga-chaij) moon-night, moonUght
y y Ji (dil-friv) 'heart-deceit', deception
4J\i- (j^j>-(haiiz khana) tank-house, private bath
<j;,.»-_/-"(sar-khat) head-writing, heading
4.«L>-ji (daraj-nama) degree-document, thermo¬
meter
4i\>:-~.p- (habs-khana) prison-house, prison
4) U-y 5 (girtii-khana) 'caught-house',
4)Wi'.AJ (bandi-khana) 'tying-house',
jlilj (radar) road-holding, duty collector, pub¬
lican
403, Words Formed of an Adjective and a Verbal Noun
jy ,) (bar bun) free-being, freedom
oy, y. (pir bun) full-being, fullness
jy yji (drezh bun) long-being, longness, length
j , j\i (shad-bun) 'dry-being', dryness
jipy O-.^-i (shikast khwardin) retreat-eating, retreating
404. Words Formed of a Numeral Adjective and a Noun
3p y (se köz) three-corner, triangle
y.y (se pe) three-feet, three footed
3y jlj>- (chiiar koz) four-corner, four cornered, rect¬
angle
4i}3 pyr (chiiar gosha) four-side, square
cjL dJ) (yek palk) one leaved, single
dU) 3i (do palk) 'two leaved', double

C^S3 J'^(dö re-yan) two roads, cross road
O^S3 ^ (^^ re-yan) three roads, cross roads
33 3^ (do rii) two-face, false, hypocrite
Ji 3i (do dil) two-heart, false, hypocrite
Note. Instead of JjJ (koz) we may use ^j-^ (such) or 4! i

(qorna), or ciWllJ (qolinchik).
405. Words Formed of a Noun and a Verbal Noun
jljjj-i (gul-rizhan) rose scattering
jl3j ^j'_j»-(khwen rizhan) blood shedding
jb j\i"> S3 (re nishan dan) road-showing, guiding
j\).-» d5^(jarg siitan) liver-burning, sorrowing,
mourning
Note. This form corresponds with the Verbal Noun of 'compound

verbs', formed by a noun and an auxiliary. (See 192, 4,, 335, and 336.)
406. Words Formed by the Use of Particles
CJ>^, y (be bakht) without fortune, unfortunate
(See 397)
j3 y_ (be zhin) without wife, widower
iy y (be merd) without man, widow
030 y, (bewa-zhin)
dSt^ 3 (V.(be rang) colorless
'*jj* y. (be hafiya) hopeless
ojW^ (na-chara) helpless
>»jl».«\j (na-ma'lom) uncertain
jliLS lj (na-gaîshtû) not attained, unripe
407. In the words jjjV (aii-ro) 'to-day', and J;_jl (aii-
shaii) 'to night', the combination consists of 'a pronoun and
a noun'.
KURDISH COMPOUND WORDS 225
408. Words Formed by Repeating the Noun
b b (ka-ka) brother (elder brother)
dilCi(lag-lak) stork
dXt^ (ma-mak) breast
dAA.^ (mamkek) a breast (fit. 'mamma')
yy <«i_^ (briq-a briq) sparkling, flashing, lightning
/y ajû (taq-a-taq) knocking, gun reports
0 .AeÂ (hara-hara) noise, tumult
(i_,ii 4.b'(shilp-a shilp) rippling
3y ojy (bör-a bor) bawling, braying
* S 4^^(girm-a girm) thundering
dJi?- aS'^j^: (chak-a chak) splashing (as when fish hop
on the surface of the water).
Cjy Ajy (qirt-a qirt) crackling
'\3 o'y (qizh-a qizh) screaming, crying
Cjy 47î^(pirt-a pirt) murmuring, complaining
Jy 4!y (böl-a bol) murmuring, complaining
pj\i jIj (qai- qara) crow (the bird}
y ey (qar-a qar) cawing (like a crow)
,^j dxJj (rang rang) or

disjj 4X)j (rang-a rang) various colors
_^ j\y (sar-an sar) from end to end
^P A^p (kömala kömala) in bunches, in piles
409, Words Designating Relationship
Ijjlyi-(khwar-za) or
I34>ji«>-(khiishk-a za) sister-born, nephew or niece
^3 ji (bra-za) brother-born, nephew or niece

ijyil (amö-za) uncle or aunt-born, cousin
\3yy. (bin-amö-za) 'under cousin', second cousin
/»L«(mam) uncle (father's side)
J\>-(khal) uncle (mother's side)
Jji (piir) aunt (both sides)
1^ j3(zhin-bra) brother-wife, sister-in-law
"U jj (zhin-mam) uncle-wife, aunt (by marriage)
d\)li_;-^(zir-daik) under-mother, step-mother
«wj\_;-^(zir-bab) under-father, step-father
^li(da-pir) 'old-mother' or
dL> (nank) grand-mother
y\i^ (ba-pir) 'old-father', grand-father
y\ <jS (hab-i ba-pir) great grand-father

ljl3 (zawa) son-in-law
iiy (biik) bride, daughter-in-law
33'y (kâzur) father-in-law
j-~>- (khasii) mother-in-law
ey (nawa) grand-son, or grand-daughter
Note. The word Ijlj (zawa) 'bridegroom' or 'son-in-law' is also

used for 'brother-in-law', unless a person prefers the clause çÇi r^
y^y{mtrû-î khûshk-(i)m) 'husband of my sister'. Most of these
words belong under 401. Other words of the same class are eiVSs^
(beg-zada). 'nobleman'; ciljli (sha-zada) 'prince'.
CHAPTER XII
KURDISH ORTHOGRAPHY
410. A chapter on 'Kurdish orthography' may seem to be
supurfluous, as the written Kurdish language, from which we
have to draw our conclusions and make our rules, is very
limited.
KURDISH ORTHOGRAPHY 227
There are a great many short 'love poems' and 'songs of
triumph' memorized by the singers and poets of the various
tribes ; but few of these exist in written form, and they vary
in words and pronunciations peculiar to the individual tribe.'
The written poems, legends and stories, on the other hand,
are so full of words unnecessarily borrowed from the neigh¬
boring tongues, like Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and even Syriac,
that one hardly knows which language is represented the most.
This, of course, is not the fault of the language, but the fauU
of the Kurdish writer.
It has not yet become a custom to do much writing in
Kurdish, and therefore, a great many of the purer Kurdish
words and expressions, as well as the Kurdified foreign words,
are looked upon as more or less unclassical and vulgar. The
Kurdish writers, aware of this, try to evade criticism by em¬
ploying many foreign words instead, or by using the original
orthography of a word rather than the one peculiarly Kurdish.
Where this fear of ridicule is absent, another motive or
reason for employing unnecessary foreign words and ortho¬
graphy, is often a desire to display one's knowledge of Arabic,
Turkish, or Persian, or on account of insufficient knowledge
of 'real Kurdish'.
In Kurdish writings a word is often met with spelt in two
or three different ways, the same as is often the case in
Turkish, Syriac, and even Persian. And this is done by writers
of equal ability and repute. Example : Some will invariably
write C-frt' (sa'at) 'hour' (Ar.), instead of giving it the

Kurdish pronunciation and accept by writing it o\«-"
(sa'at). See 59, 1 and 2.) Some write vIl->-lj (rahat) 'quiet',
'comfortable', (a Turkification of the Ar. 4>-lj ), instead of
adhering more closely to Kurdish accentuation and write
w9-j (rahat).
The letter 1 is less prominent in Kurdish than in its neigh¬
boring tongues. In words employing the negative particle
\j (na), the \ is often omitted and the contraction (na)
is employed. Example : ^3^ (na-khösh) 'sick', 'unpleas¬
ant'; and in other words the I is substituted by a (ha) or
c5(e). Examples; a^jA (hiimed) 'hope', for Jl^jl
(limed); jOJî- (khwendin) 'to read', 'reading', for jX\y
(khwandin), etc. (See 35, 47, 4, 160 and 207.)
In short, the general rule for Kurdish orthography is to
write Kurdish words with Kurdish pronunciation and accent,
and to express the vowel sounds more frequently by the letters
o 3 I and ^^ than is usually the case in Arabic,
Turkish or Persian.
If this rule is followed out, a more uniform Kurdish ortho¬
graphy will gradually be established, and the individuality of
the Kurdish language, as to sounds and accents, will be pre¬
served. (See 8-29, and Note.)
CHAPTER XIII
MISCELLANEOUS
411. Designation of Years
Jb jl (aii sal this year
jl) (par) last year

MISCELLANEOUS 229
3^y. (perar) year before last
3^y. J ; (basar perar) three years ago
iSi J L< jl (aii sal-i di) the next year
Jb Ji (j^l (pash do sal) after two years, etc.
Si yJi U (saleki di) another year
412. Designation of Seasons
J If) (bahar) spring _yl(paiz) autumn
ji^jU (hawin) summer 6^3 (zistan) winter
413. Names of the Months of the Year
jbT(adar) March.
jL.J (nisan) April
uMMgulan) May
ö^î3^(khazîran) June
3y (tamiiz) July
? iJa (tabagh) August
jjLl (iliin) September
y^^_ y_y^ (tishrin peshi) October
J^\ al (tishrin pashi) November -
LT**.*' öj' b (kanûn peshi) December
^^li jy b (kanûn pashi) January
is\*i (shubat) February
Note. jyS (gulan) means 'roses'. The month in which they
bloom bears their name. jaLi(ilûn) is Syriac; many Kurds use
Oy\ (ilûl) Ar. Instead of y^ (peshi), some Kurds use tjy
(pichuk) 'small', or J»* (hauwal) 'first*; instead of , J^\> (pashi),

. . r '^ '
some Kurds use jy (mazin) 'great', or y\ (akhir) 'last'.
-1*^«^ (shubat) may also be written JUlj.^(shöat).
414. Names of the Days in the Week
j«i d\) (yek shamii) Sunday

-«i ji(dö shamii) Monday
y y (se shamii), Tuesday
3*^ Jij>-(chûar shamii) Wednesday
j«^ ^- (penj shamii) Thursday
4*c.y>^(jû'ma) Friday
y (shamii) Saturday
Note. Some Kurds use the Persian 4,.li (shamba), but the
purer Kurdish is j*;i (shamu) or (shamo) ' Persian i_j (b) often
becomes (ii) or (o) in Kurdish. Example: ,___, | (ab) becomes j\
(au) 'water'.
415- Names of Days, Present, Past and Future
jjjl (aii-ro) to-day
y_3i (diiaine) yesterday
(^^»)_(pere) day before j'csterdaj'
Sy. J Î (basar pere) three days ago
y^ "333 jW (chûar rozh I'pash) four days ago, etc.
yf*-P (sibhaine) to-morrow
y-~P 3i (do sibhai) day after to-morrow
y^ y (se sibhai) after three days
y^'.p jlj>- (chiiar sibhai) after four days
333 '(y-^l (j^y (I'pash penj rozh) after five days, etc.
Note,The contraction y^T^ (sibhai) is preferable io^-y^
(sibhaine), when used in connection with the numerals; but the com¬
plete form would also be correct.
416. Various Periods of Day and Night
jjc>j»> (nîwa-rö) mid-day
jy (nahar) mid-day, noon
330y y\ (pash niwa-rö) after-noon
S3^3'} ly' \;(bang-i eware) or

MISCELLANEOUS 231
f..fi£- (asir) afternoon prayer (about 3 o'clock)
(_$jlyl(eware) evening
^\j\ 3jj (rozh awai) sun-set
ö'j^ y^S (bang-i shaiian) sun-set
jLryi- yKi li (bang-i khaiitinan) evening prayer (hour
after sun-set)
ji (shaii) night
pj-oy (niwa-shaû) mid-night
3/ jlj^b (karwan kûzh) Morning star (time it ap-
^ pears)
yî dX) L )>L (malla bang dane) morning cry, morning
prayer
y L) (baiyane) early dawn (day-break to sun¬
rise)
yy-^ 333 (rozh halatin) sun-rise
ip-^"^ (sibhaine) morning
j^;)^ (kawaltiin) tea (about 10 o'clock A. M.)
417. Divisions of Time
Jb (sal) year
(dSoU (mang) month
y y (haiitii) week
3jj (rozh) day
0\»-" (sa'at) hour
CA*-" y (neii sa'at) half hour
-^y (charak) quarter of an hour
'^y y (se charak) three quarters of an hour
4iJi (daqiqa) minute

MISCELLANEOUS
418. The Human Body
jX (badan) body jlj (zar) mouth
jjj (bazhin) or ^J (leii) lip
C-«^(qamit) stature 4x::>- (changa) chin
y (mo) or jli,5 (dadan) tooth
:lJy(tûk) hair "^y^ (pök) gums
4iî (qala) jUj(ziman) tongue
skull, scalp jp(giö) ear
^y (sar~qala) CL) (pisht) back
summit />^ (charm) skin
(lit. "top-skul") jOj(riden) beard
ji jWyJ (neii-chaiian) J-*-* (simil) mustach
forehead J 5 (garii) throat
(lit. between the y^\ (astii) or
eyes') J.^ (mil) neck
iZ^p (gesht) flesh y C*ij (pisht astii)
iC(reg) nape of neck
sinew, muscle ^_y_(pirch) braid
yy (khûwcn) blood dJLl) (bask) small arm
dJu.^ (meshk) brain ciLJ 1 (anisk) elbow
j^(birii) eyebrows C.î (dast) hand
*^33 (riimat) cheek (jy(grai dast) or
j-S (kapo) nose (jiingi dast)

kZ-'î
jU- (chau) eye wrist
4Jl5(galina) pupil (Jy (bari dast) palm
/'i(dam) or ûl^(shan) shoulder

SYNTAX. 233
C'.-.«(mist) fist y3 S3^rr (jigar-i rash)
iJjiJ (nînûk) nail liver (lit. black liver)
dXoli (qamik) finger Ji (dil) heart
(dUl> c^__P'(grai qamik) J^j (rekhöl)
knuckle intestines
^y_ (pûk) eye-lid O*-' (simt) hip
Jj^ (mizhijl) iJyJ (netik) navel
eye-lash jlj (ran) thigh
dXj' (sing) chest yj] (azhnii) or
d}..^(mimk) breast iJy>. (chiik) knee
iij (zik) stomach -^N/_y).(lûlak) foreleg
y\y (parasii) rib y sy(sr^^ pe) or

^2JL^ (tanisht) side y_ ^Xiş- (jangi pe) ankle
jljbyo (mösildan) y,(v^) or

bladder ;l]'^(Iak) foot
<.y <^J^:^(Jigar-i spi) J I (pani) iieel
lung (lit. white liver) y j^lj(qamkipe) toe
CHAPTER XIV
SYNTAX
A complete system of Syntax of the Kurdish language is
not to be expected in this first attempt to present a systematic
Grammar of this tongue. Many questions are yet too un¬
settled. Furthermore, much that might be said under this
heading has been virtuall)' anticipated in the numerous ex¬
amples given in the preceding pages. Attention will there¬
fore merely be directed to some of the principle features.
General Construction of a Kurdish Sentence
The order of the parts of a Kurdish sentence, is very much

the same as in Latin, ie., subject, object, and verb. Example:
^yi U" y^ (amin nan dakhom) 'I eat bread; dljb
Sy L5^;^"^(P'^"^1^ haspeki kri) 'A man bought a horse'.

"The Accusative generally precedes the dative. Example:
S3 ^. eJi J o^^Jla (<--I3 jI (aii katabai halgra wa
bidaba wi) 'Take this (or that) book and. give (it) to him'.
Same with the ablative. Ex. X\l»\ /Cj 4] *5v.-*-Ij
(katebekim la wi astand) 'I took a book from him'.
In case the accusative forms a part of the verb, it very often
follows the dative. Example: /.Jbi y 4j (ba tû da-i-dam)
'I will give it to you'.
If the object is a pronoun, it is often omitted. Example :
rjy i (dakiizhim) 'I will kill (it)'; yy (denim) 'I will bring
(it); jrî'(ditim) 'I saw him'.
The verb is almost always placed at the end of the sentence.
Exaniple: oj-AIj^ i<7- -^ (a" katebam khiiendija) 'I
have read this book'; jjj y y\> 4] (la pash do
rozh dem) 'I shall come after two days'.
A .few verbs sometimes precede their datives. Example:
S3^ '^** (hatim-a shari) 'I came to town'; d:'".S
yu (gaishtin-a male) 'they arrived at home'; 4Jy>.
t,$j,l^ (chiin-a khware) 'they went down', 'they descended'
(lit. they went to the below).
Dependent Sentences are generally introduced by the con¬
junction 43 (ka), which, however, may be omitted. Ex¬
ample: J oy y\ ^ *y ^jlj y\ (amin razi bum)
(ka) atu lera bi) T was willing (that) you should be here'.
SYNTAX, 235
Interrogative Sentences are generally introduced by the in¬
terrogative particle (_$jl (are) 'yes'. Example : jlj\j t^jl

cJjli (are baran dabare) 'Does it rain?' (ht. Yes, rain rains?) ;
4, 03^ J3J oî^ c5jI (are kurdistan zor gaûra-ya)

'Is Kurdistan very large?'.
The Oblique Narative is little used in Kurdish. The words
of another are generally quoted in direct speech and intro¬
duced by 4S (ka) 'that'. Example: jy>\>- j\x^-j> O ^^ ji
ry3y l> (aii kuti ka haspakan, hazirn, ba biröin) 'He said
(that) the horses are ready, let us go'.
SPECIAL EMPLOYMENT OF VARIOUS PARTS
OF SPEECH
Articles
When the definite article in English denotes preeminence,
as 'the sun', 'the sky', 'the world', etc., it is usually omitted
in Kurdish. Example : 4.. / jj3 3-?J (lözh zör germ-a)

333 3^ (taû zör germ-a) '(The) sun is very
hot'; ojL? jU>T (asman saû-a) '(The) . sky is clear';
43 Jli Lii (dunya shulûq-a) '(The) world is disturbed'.
The indefinite article suffix dl (ek) 'a' or 'an', is also some¬
times omitted. Example: t_â; yS (kasim na-di) 'I did not
see (a) person'; eyi^ 4j iCiU -^5 ^---a (hasp la manga
ba qimattir-a) '(A) horse is more valuable than (a) cow'.
Nouns
Between nouns in opposition, the conjunction j_^_ (y'"')
'namely', is sometimes employed. Example : iJU ^y)y^

%. 1m^ dJLXj 4I 4y 40 (hichkas chak niya bajga la
yekyek (ya'ni) khulla) 'Nobody is good but one, namely God';
S33 (>J l>- fj*i 03p jyojlj(piaûekî gaura (ya'ni) hakim

roi) 'A great man, namely the Governor, went away'.
The repetition of nouns and other words, so common to all
languages of the East, is also employed in Kurdish.
This repetition sometimes denotes 'distribution' or 'variety'.
Examples :jjş-jj=-(jûr) 'kinds' ;^^j (rang rang) 'colors';

<^}^ ^y (i"i Jûi) 'various'; so also in Adverbs:
(JJ.^ (5-A;A (haidi haidi) 'slowly'.
The repetition may also be employed to give 'intensity.' Ex.
oijj (wurda) 'minutely'; jjj jj3 (zor zor) 'exceedingly'.
Another repetition of nouns which is perhaps more vulgar,
is to substitute ç (m) for the first letter of the repeated noun,
if it begins with a consonant, and prefixing ^ (m), if it begins
with a vowel. This kind of repetition denotes 'generalization'.
Examples: jy jy (töz m-öz) 'dust, and everything of that
sort'; Jy, jp (qor m-ör) 'mud, and everything of that sort';
eijy oi33 (wûrda m-ûrda) 'every little thing'; ejy 03^
(shûra m-ûra) 'every little useless thing'.
An accusative of time, like the accusative of object, may be
formed without any preposition. Example : (Jp^ (shaû-e) 'in
the night'; or it may be formed by the preposition 4j (ba) or
6i(da) 'by' or 'in', the latter taking the postposition b (da).
Example : y. 4, (ba shau) or (jy a> (ba shaû-e) or
\xy ei (da shati-e da) 'in the night'.
An accusative of direction may be formed by the prefix ej
(wa) 'ward', denoting direction. Example : li JL..i 03 (wa-

SYNTAX. 237
dastî da) 'he dehvered him (lit. 'he gave him hand-ward') ;
Cjy y 03 (wa-sar kaiit) 'he ascended' (Lit. 'he fell up¬
ward') ; and sometimes the 03 (wa) is suffixed. Example:
y ojIaj (waha-wa chii) or contracted to y «j'j
(wa-wa chii) 'he went his way' (lit. 'he went thus-ward') ;
e3py y (chfi khwara-wa) 'he descended' (Ht. 'he went
down-ward') ; 0333j y (chu zhiira-wa) 'he entered' (lit.
'he went in-ward').
Adjectives
In a great majority of cases the adjective follows its noun,
and (_$ (i) is suffixed to the latter as a connective. Example:
yj ys.\z..S<i\ (angustilek-i zer) 'a silver ring'. The
same holds good when two or more adjectives are joined to
one noun. Example: o^y 3 *J^' 03 S ^>-îu
(malek-i gaura, taza wa jiian) 'a large new and beautiful house'.
The numeral adjectives, however, with the exception of
(yek) 'one', uniformly precede the noun. Efflample : ip~^
y 1a ijJi (shash kas hatin) 'six persons came' ; .^. ..a rdj
Cj3P (P^"J hasp(i)m frot) 'I sold five horses'
When emphasis is to be laid upon the numeral, til) (yek)
is also placed before the noun, otherwise it usually follows as
a suffix. Example: î y^-^ .iaij (faqat kateb-ek-(i)m
di)I only saw (one) a book'.
A few adjectives are also placed before the noun for the
sake of emphasis. Example: jjIa ^-J 333 (zor kas hatin)
'many people came'.
When numeral adjectives are employed, the nouns they refer

to usually remain in the singular. Example : 4»a. ,,-~Ii 3i
(do kateb (i)m haya) 'I have two books' (lit. two book(s) exist
to me').
Occasionally, however, the plural is also met with. Ex¬
ample: (yyy 33j ^ y^3y ^y^ ^ (^^ chiiar

kur-an-i mölla zor najibin) 'The (these or those) four sons of
the Mollah are very refined'.
The Arabic numeral Jj-|j> (wahid) is sometimes used, as
as the Persian \^" (tanha), instead of the more Kurdish
V-o (tanya) 'only', 'one'.
Pronouns
The nominatives ^^,«1 (amin), yl (atu), jUaû), 4^1 (ama),
^ l(angö), and jljl (awan), are usually omitted before the
verb, unless for the sake of specification or emphasis, as the
termination of the verb, except in the 2nd. and 3rd, person
plural, prevents all ambiguity in regard to number and person.
Used as a subject nominative, the pronoun is occasionally
separated from its verb by an intermediate clause. Example;
^L-JiA (Syj yo3 y\ Li.Â y\ (amin, heshta atii wa-khabar
na-biii, halistam) 'I, while as yet you were not awake, arose'.
Interrogative Pronouns are sometimes placed at the begin¬
ning of a sentence, and sometimes at the end, directly before
the verb. Example : S^^ y y^ S3i Cy (chi-t dawe

ka bo tii bikam) 'What do you want me to do for you?'; £
y y \^
Syi u'j\ '^ y^ (kie kuti ka baran dabare) 'Who said

that it rains?'; <;> ej^ (awa chi-a) 'What is this?'; p\
(jp (atu kie-i) 'Who art thou?'.

SYNTAX. 239
In polite conversation the pronouns y\ (amin) T and,
(min) 'me', is often avoided. Such words as Cjy y
(nökar-(i)t) or OjlxL-ii- (khizmatkar-(i)t) 'thy servant',
are employed instead. Example: In answering the question:
Who did this? a Kurd will often politely say, Oy j» (nokar-
(ijt); and if asked: Who shall I give this to? he will say,
Cjy y -^ û-l;(bida ba nökar-(i)t) Give (it) to your servant'.
Pronouns used as the object of transitive verbs, are usually
joined to the verb in their 'enclitic' form. Example: piyC^''

(hal-('i)t girt-(i)m) 'Thou didst carry me', consists of wl*
Oy (hal-(i)t girt) 'Thou didst carry' +^ f (i)m, the 'en¬
clitic' personal ending used objectively ;jyy ^l*(hal-i girt-i)

'He, she or it carried you', consists of Oy J^ (hal-i girt)
'He, she or it carried' 4- ci. (i), the 'enclitic' form for 'thou
art', used objectively ; j^y (^b(da-i girt-(i)m) 'He attacked
me'; cîy jLil3l (a-zad-man kird-i) 'We made you (sing.)
free'; ,-,ji3 O' (na-t kusht-in) 'You did not kill us'
jijL-l >.>U- 4j y»Jl (ango ba khulla-maspard(i)n) 'I deliv¬
ered you to God' ; ji^^ «»^(lera-m dar kird-(i)n) 'I put them
out of here' j,5 XÛjXil (^ (kie ango machi kird-(i)n) 'Who
kissed you?'; j:> . (^:> (da-i-bird-(i)n) 'He, she or it carried
them away.'
Verbs
In general the Kurdish verb agrees with its subject nomina¬
tive in number and person.
In case the subject nominative consists of two or more
pronouns, the same rule is followed as in Latin, Greek, and

240 A PRACTICAL KURDISH GRAMMAR.
other languages, that the first person is preferred to the second,
and the second to the third. Example : y^^ y^ 3 /'
(atii wa amin dach-in) 'You and I will go'; jTIa jl jl j yl
(atii wa awan hat-(i)n) 'You and they came'.
The object of the verb is usually designated by the case
ending ^ (i) or (e). Example :|î,Ov.jiÛ(mal-e drust da¬

kam) 'I am building a house'. Sometimes, however, it omits
this ending. Ex. ^ i C^ji JU (mal drust da-kam) 'I am

building (a) house'.
In the 3rd person preterite of intransitive verbs, the object
is usually expressed without any suffix. Example: \a dS^
Oy (sag hal-i girt) 'The dog carried (it)'; jLLa (JP
(are hena-tan) 'Did you bring (it)?'; ylS^ Sij^3i y> (har
dûazdaî kusht-(i)n) 'He killed them all twelve'; |^ U
yP (hakim girt(i)n-i) 'The Governor caught them'; -^1

l^-î(amin girt-(i)n-(i)m' 'I caught them'.
A verb may employ both the 'enclitic' form and the 'per¬
sonal ending' form of the pronoun, and in that case the 'per¬
sonal ending' form indicates the subject, and the 'enclitic' form
the object. Example: yy J\ (atii girt-(i)n-i) 'Thou
didst catch them'; y\^y (girt-man-(i)n) 'We caught
them'; jLiiy (bird-(i)n-tan) 'You carried them (away)';
\y^ Si3^3i (diiazda-i kusht-(i)n) or oijlji Jlij
(kusht-(i)n-i duuazda) 'He killed the (them) twelve'; j^
^3^P O ay (chilon barala-t kirdii-m) 'How have you left
me?' y_p^ y y (bo na-i-kushtu-in) 'Why has he not

killed us?'; yy C^p ^\>. (hakim girt-a biin-i) 'The Gov-
SYNTAX. 241
ernor had caught them'; y\y '-^ ö'3\y (sarba-
zan kusht-a bû-yan-(i)n) 'The soldiers had killed them';
4)l.lijL) (bi-yan-da-m-aya) 'Would that they had given
me!; 4.U\)Oy jLU (hal-yan-girta-ba-m-aya) 'Would
that they had carried me! \> L-^jb y I (agar-bi-tan-
henaba) 'If you had brought (it)'; j\; j.'Lj^jLj y I (agar-
bi-yan-hena-bû ban) 'If they had brought them'.
Indicative Mood
The Present Tense is sometimes used,
(1) As a perfect. Example : 0 i t^yç-jO^ JL- jlyç-

(chûar sal hat-ö-chûi daka) 'He is (has been) coming
and going four years'.
(2) Instead of the future. Example : î 333 y yp
(la-pash se rozh da-ch(i)m) 'I (will) go after three
days'.
The Preterite Tense is sometimes used in a present sense.
Examples: y^ (j/ (tai gaisht-(i)m) 'I understand' (lit. 'I

arrived into'); Oy (mird-(i)m) 'I am dying' (lit. 'I died');
^\x:i-(khin-ka-m) 'I am choking', 'I am drowning' (lit. 'I
choked') ; ejp ^ (le-(i)m göra) 'I am bewildered' (lit.
'It changed from me').
The Imperfect Tense, 3rd person sing., is used in a perfect
or pluperfect sense in the 'apodosis' or clause containing the
conclusion of a conditional sentence. Example : y I
yi yU S^y y\ (a&^'" ^t" chii-ba- i chatir da-bii) 'If you
had gone, it would have (or had) been better'.

Subjunctive Mood
The particles which take the subjunctive mood are, 4SÖJ
(ranga), j»>^ (bashkam), |»>Ji.i(dashkam), j_^5Ju(balke) 'per¬
haps', 'maybe'; 3 I (agar) 'if; 4i (ka),LAta), y LA(hatakii)
'that', 'in order that' ; ,<XJi-j (wakhteki) 'while'; bL« (ma-
bada), j^ jJ (nawakii, Lî (naba) 'lest' ; j_5»- y ! (agar chi),
-^>- ^* (har " chand) 'though', 'even though'.
Conditional Mood
The conditional mood is very often used instead of the
optative, and vice versa. Example: f^l^j'tV' r^l
(agar amin lawai bam) 'If I were there'. By employing the
optative particle uy (birya) 'would that', making it \y
C^. S3' y^ (birya amin lawai bam) 'would that I were
there', the conditional form of the verb p (bam) may also
be used optatively. This, however, is not the most correct
form for the optative. It should rather be fjP y^ \y
4j_U1> (birya amin lawai bam-aya). With the Iy' (birya)
should go the suffix 4)1 (aya), to make it a perfect optative,
' Infinitive
Instead of the regular infinitive, ending in j (n), the pres¬
ent subjunctive, 3rd person sing., in connection with the con¬
junction 43 (ka) 'that', is very often employed. Example:
Cy3^ y 4J d\z>: (chitek niya bo fröshtin) 'There is
nothing (for) to sell; ij^ 43 4J dJL:>-(chitek niya ka bi-
fröshe) 'there is nothing that he (a person) might sell;
(y.33'îy y. lyiidastA pe kirt ba roini) or Ijy 435 ^y.cy^
(dasti pe kirt ka bi-röwa) 'He started to go'; ^S y S3^
(J Cyy (are bo gûe girtin hat-i) or a^ y\»> S3^

SYNTAX. 243
Sp^, sp (are hat-i ka gtie bi-gri) 'Did you(sing.) come to
hear?'
Adverbs
An adverb is placed before the verb, adjective, or other
adverb which it qualifies. Examples: p\a> ey a] (lamez-
a hat-(i)m) 'I came long ago'; 4>oj\r 333 oy U- jl
(aii khaniia. zor tarik-a) 'This house is very dark'; jjjl
y\A dXiji y^^ (aiirö kameki drang hat-i) 'You came
a little late to-day'.
Two negatives are usually employed in Kurdish, Examples:
y.p dXp>- Â (hich chitek na-bin-(i)m) 'I see nothing'
(lit. 'I do not see nothing') ; 4J dXy 7jâ> (hich chitek ni¬
ya) 'There is nothing' (lit. 'There is not nothing').
Instead of simply answering 'yes' or 'no' in reply to a ques¬
tion, the Kurds often repeat the words of the interrogator, or
at least the verbal part. Examples : yy y\ t^jl (are atu
dei) 'Will you come?'; yy Jj (ball de-m) 'Yes, I will
come', or simply -ji (de-m) 'I will come'; (yy S^ (are
na-khösh-î) 'Are you sick?'; yy^ (na-khösh-(i)m) 'I am
sick', or ^ yy (na-khösh n-(i)m) 'I am not sick.'
Prepositions
The preposition (j (i) of the Genitive Case also indicates
genus, species, or material. Examples: S3^ y y. (hizin-i
kewi) 'a mountain goat', 'a wild goat'; Sy^ Lyy^
(hangiiin-i kewi) 'wild honey' (lit. 'mountain honey')
y I (zanjir-i asin) 'an iron chain'. The latter may also
be expressed by the ablative preposition 4] (la) 'from'.

The preposition y (bo) 'to', may sometimes be used in
connection with the suffix |oj (wa) 'wards'. Examples:
y^ o3py>- y (bo khij-ara-wa chii) 'He went down-ward';
y 0333J y^ (bo zhiira-wa chu) 'He went in-ward'.
In like manner the prepositional suffix 4 (-a) may be used
with oj (wa) for the locative. Example: oyyi- aI\a
(hat-a sharia-wa) 'He came into the City'.
Conjunctions
The copulative conjunction jl (yan) 'or', is often omitted
between the cardinals. Example : ^jS py>: y (se chuar
kas) 'Three (or) four persons'. On the other hand, it is often
repeated at the head of successive clauses: j' yi y y

yl jL : yj c^jû (yan amin dabe aii karai bikam, yan atfl)
'Either I must do this work, or you (must do it)'.
Modes of Address in Kurdish
The various Arabic, Turkish and Persian modes of address
are often employed ; but the more suitable words in Kurdish
are y\^ (janabi) 'honorable', and y>_y^ (tashrifi) 'his
lordship', 'his excellency'. (_jj^- (janabi) is much used in
letter-writing instead of Mr. ,
Supplications
A very common phrase of supplication is, (_^Û- Sy^ ji
(bo khater khöllai) 'For God's sake They also frequently
say, j->*^ Sj^^ y (ho khatir-i peghambar) 'For the
prophet's sake!'; OjjJ S}''^ y (ho khatir-i kurit) 'For
your son's sake!', etc.
The most .common phrase of suplication, however, is

SYNTAX 245
^ OJly 4j (ba kurban-(i)t bi-m) 'O help me!' (lit. 'May
I be your sacrifice!').
Condolences
When a Kurd is in deep sorrow it is customary to go and
comfort him. Then they say, y>.pêy y y>y, \ (ba
bich-in bo sara-khösh-i) 'Let us go to comfort him'. The
first words usually spoken are, y (J^y" <->y (sar-(i)t
khösh be) 'May you (sing.) be comforted!' (lit. "May your
head be well !"). If spoken to several, the plural is employed,
y yy 3y (sar-û khösh be).
The comforted usually answers, y yy>- Oj>- y (b5
khot khösh be) or y yy- y"l (atii khösh be) 'May you be
comforted!' or ^ c^\j Cjj^ % (khuHa kar-(i)t rast

bi-ka) 'May the Lord prosper your work!' (lit. "May the Lord
make your work straight!"), or Ixi 0--b cJy- *^
(khulla shukhul-(i)t rast bi-ka), same meaning.
Salutations
The most common salutation is, y^ f^^ (salam alai-
kûm) 'How do you do?' (Ht, "Peace be with you"). The
answer is pX^\ ^\£. (alaikum a'sniam) 'How do you do?'

(lit. "With you be peace"). Occasionally the men add the
following to the answer: ^^0 y j 4I) 0-»»-j j (wa rakh-
mat iilla wa barakatahû) 'and the mercy of God and His bless¬
ing'. The women substitute the words, y (^jW y (sar
chaiii min) 'on my eyes', instead of the words, ^ô y j
(wa barakatahû).
Other customary greetings are \ j-^... (marhaba) 'hail!',

J^. y^r^ (sibhai b'kher) 'good-morning', y) 3303^
(niwarrö b'kher) 'good afternoon!' y<^_ SJ^y^ (eware b'
kher) or _^Je> ^\li-| (akhsham b'kher) 'good evening!',
'good night!'
For welcoming a visitor one uses Sy>- "^ (ha khere)
'welcome!' Sy '^, 333 (zör ba khere) 'very welcome !'.
Idiomatic Phrases
y^. '*f yi (dabe ba re bi-ch-(i)n) 'You or they must
agree' (ht. "You must go by the road") ; /»y S303\:^ (cha-
wa-re bum) 'I was awaiting' (lit. "I was eye to road") ;
P> jy'ojU (chawa-nfir bum) 'I was expecting' (lit. "I

was eye-fire or eye-bright") ; lî (^jb (dan dakhwa) 'He,
she or it will be beaten' (lit. "He, she or it will eat wood") ;
^p jIa Oî (dast hal-da-gr-(i)m) 'I will quit' (lit. "I will
lift hand") ; çS i y O-i (dast pe da-ka-m) 'I begin', or
'I will begin' (lit. "I make hand to it") ; o_/' S3 ^ (mil-i
re girt) 'He, she or it started out' (lit. "His neck took the
road") ; ^p j^j (wadar kaût) 'He, she or it departed' (lit.
"He fell out" ; ^^p ;> O-'i oj (wa-dast dakawe) 'It will be
found' (lit. "It will fall hand-ward") ; (SP i j^03 (wa-gir

dakawe), same meaning (lit. "It will fall arrest-ward") ; y^
sy I" (pem na-kre) 'It is impossible' (lit. "By me it can¬

not be done") ; Ijy ^"^^ (dast-(i)m na-roa) 'I can't do it'
(lit. "My hand does not go") : (^^/ y 4) (la bin giö-î)
'From necessity' (lit. "From under his ear") ; y Ji (dil-i
chu) 'He, she or it fainted' (lit. "His heart went"); oJU
y j\y_3 (ma\-{\)t weran na-be) 'Q my!' (Ht, "May your

house not be desolate").
SYNTAX 247
Some Common Kurdish Proverbs
(Sy\> S^ dS^ : Ij^l! L$jL> jL. (mar niari na-khwa,
sag sagi na-bri) 'A snake will not eat a snake, a dog will not
forsake a dog'. ;
\^:> yJ \x_y. (J33 oi : \^yJsj\sXi>^ S3^ (^^^ ^^

ziddi bai tifai bika, da rui khöi-da tifai daka) 'He who spits
against the wind, spits himself in the face'.
Sî O^J O^^^ J"^- c^ (j" ^^^^"' '^^'^^"'' ^''

man dangiie) 'The tongue touches where the tooth hurts'.
pM:, Sy t}y SCiy (bardeki pichiik sar-i daqal-
she) 'A small stone will crack his head'.

y /
Ji /jJi. LS Si 3\. ' oy op (kara mamira, bahar de,
gia shin dabe) 'Donkey, don't die I Spring is coming and the
grass will be green'.
ejj3 ^ ryi dX : A^ y C^3i jly. (hazar dost bibe ka-
ma, yek dishmin bibe zör-a) '.\ thousand friends is little, one
enemy is much'.
Sj3i d^ : Ijji jljj\^(karwan darwa, sag daware)

'The caravan passes, the dog barks'.
o_;lo^_p yP~J» 4J nji^L y y (sirkai balash la
hangiiin shirintar-a) 'Free vinigar is sweeter than honey'.
oy^ (^1 jij : oÔjS 4^ y" 4) 4i S3^ (awi ka la
tû ba qöwattir-a, wadûai makawa) 'He that is stronger than
you, pursue him not'.
4-»- y yy^ eyi c^jli 4^ (_$jl (awi ka shari diwa.

baladshi bo chia) 'He who has seen the City, what does he
want a guide for?'
(Ji t^jli 4J y OJ Ljy Si 3\>.' oy ey

(kara mamira, bahar de, kurtanit bo la share de) 'Donkey,
don't die! Spring is coming and you will get a pack-saddle
from the City'.
jly> csf c^ ^ ö^3j^y y y} '^^^y

ypy_ 4j oyi (bakhtak naib be, no-shîrawan hakim be hazar
kalawa ba pölekî) 'If Bakhtak be vizier, and Noshirawan be
Governor, a thousand ruins mav be had for a pennv'.
y^y- Ai 4l«3 Xp : Sy p 333 j** (hamii rozh
kar na-mire, sat kifta ba shaicki) 'Every day a donkey don't
die, (that you may have) a hundred meat-balls for a shai',
Sp i 3i3 Syj ^_p ^ Sy^ yr ^ (la je fikri nakaî,

rewi wadar dakawe) 'From a place you think not, the fox
comes out'.
y^ S3^r 3i S3i Cy ' eyy (kiiera chit dawe? do chawî^
sagh) 'Blind man, what do you want? Two good eyes'.
"i'J.^ (J>^ ' ^ y.3=> Sy <J y^ (j-5^ y (har kas

laki la barai bika, laki dabrinawa) 'Anybody who stretches his
feet beyond his carpet, they will cut his feet off'.
Jyi S3 J> 3i J^ yy J^^ J3i J^ y

(har kaseki darki khalkl bitaqene, khalki darki wi dataqene)
'Whoever knocks on people's doors, the people will knock on
his door'.
yCsX lOjjl ei : (Sy3î>' 4i s^ (awi ka halawisre,
da awi-da na-khanke) 'He who is hung up, will not drown
in the water'.
POETRY, 249
Sy y33> y> ' S3^ (^ ^ S3\ (awi ka guli dawe,

dabe driiishi biwe) 'He who wishes roses, must also wish for
thorns.'
^4Xj yP^ : Sy (j^y^^ "^ î (dasti ka natiian!
bibarl, machi bikai 'The hand that you can't cut off, kiss it'.
Oî (J-P^3i <J v"V J^'' (/-y3^ (dizhmineki a'

qil chatira la dosteki shet) 'A sensible enemy is better than a
foolish friend'.
^ jliy jot 4>i3*^ ^y (pichiik lazima tabi'ai
mazinan bibe) 'The small must submit ^to the great'.
^L y)i 4j Oji- y'3i J^ '^^3^ -^ ^J^ Sy

(sirri khot ba dost malai, döstî khot ba dizhmin malai) 'Don't ,
reveal your secrets to your friends, (and) don't reveal your
friends to your enemies'.
45C1 Uj (J^^'- Ciy 3i (la do shetan a'qileki

paida bika) 'From two fools discover one word of wisdom'.
(J^^ Sy ' yy> J3^ <J ^ c5jI (awi ka la gûrgî

datirse, jöi na-chene) 'He who fears the tares, sows no barley'.
y\ y 4jjb jy y~^ (gaski kön dawena sar
bani) 'They throw old brooms upon the roof.
Poetry
Some attempts have been made to introduce sacred poetry
into the Kurdish language. There are already quite a col¬
lection of hymns, both original and translations. The follow¬
ing is a Kurdish national hymn composed by the author to the
tune 'Onward Christian Soldiers':

watan-ibapir-(i)m \, \,^
kurdistan qadim y^ j\L.i_^
keii Ö shakh ö dashtî

yî 3 ^li J y
khös-(i)n bö dil-(i)m
V
ç^^ 3i iyy
je-i daik Ö bab-(i)m-a ^\^ ^ ^j^ ^^
mal-î khiishk ö bra

l^ J dbyi. j_j]L.
har tözekî wa bardekî
bö'm mirwarî-a
'4,jby ("Ji
::watan-i bapîr-(i)m-:
fjd^ (y^3 '
kurdistan qadim - . i. /
yy o\îp
keu ö shakh ö dashtî

(yi 3 fy- 3 yp
khösh-(i)n bö dil-(i)m::
'-' ^^ :f. eyy
watan-î mahabiib-i
y.3f" (J^3
kurdistanî blind
jJb y \ij-iy
arzek pir yadgarî .f

S3 ^ -^y, "Wjl
la jahîlai min
hawaî khösh wa rönak

-^"^33 3 yy S3^y
awî sard ö pak
6\ 3 iy S3^
shwanan ba hazaran
jljly> <j (j vî \pM
POETRY 251
wa sohbatani chak ^W t?" ~*^ ^
::watan-i bapir-(i)m-:: :: {j^. y^^ ''
qölka, ashkaiit, dödî b^ : ^y^\ : 4>Jj9
har wa-bir- (i)m de ^^^ çyo3 y
lera biim bo rawi S^3 y ^^ "j^
lawe bo shari Sy ji Sy
hamii aii chitana 4j\l>- jl j«a
rabirdun wista \l»jj jjiylj
kharapa afii-(i)m bika ,^5vj çpis- A^y-
::watan- bapir-(i)m-:: .. f-j\) J»j ::
dangi zörna, dahöl Jj*^^ ^33J ty^
hawai piri bika 45sj Sy S^y
zawi, mesha, blindai, qöl Jy . ^jjj^, . 4^ ; ^^jj
hamii pekawa 0X0 j,a
bikhwenin laii qaiimai ^^ ^ Cyf^
ka neu wan daya ^\^ y^ ^ ^
bir nachi au zahmati » ._*. .1 .^t ,

y^3 Jl (J^ y
wa khamiyan keshawa ejULo j L»>- _J
: :watan-i bapir-(i)m- : :
" - C-^^ y^J '
khulla barai ta'ala

JUr S3\, ^
rahnam wa rahim
(^3 3(y^3
har chi chak wa lazim-a

^y^ -> ^v cs? ^
leit talab dakain
yj i»_Jii» oJ
chawit laii watanim be

y ^3 ) Ojlç-
dayim ziadi bika
Si^j yî
salamati wa rahati
(^-3 3 (yö^
hamisha bida
OmLO ^âyMtaftA
::watan-i bapir-(i)m-::
'-'' -^y)". (J^3 ::
TRANSLATION
(I Gave My Life For Thee,)
'^ fy Ji r'V^ OjliLj «y jj j^îl
Oj çy y yy 45 Jljl; (^pX^
"Ji/ ( (j^^ ey jly -U:>- v.jliU jl
oji/iJW^yl Û- ^^ Oe^LS t^l
li ^j7 jj -j lo : j\p ' f1

eyyjA ^ytA S **A
o3\iC^y>'^,S3\ ej^y tl*- j- jf

SHORT STORIES 253
iilîjj s%- (J^ ^3^ (-y Jl a-*
U%. ei C^ 3 -^. J'y -i^ '^ ,
dljlr ^jl y y^ ^}33^ ^ t^^
0>U- J. ^ : yy> %-y^3Ç^' {^
c^ (jf? 0* y. <^->^ " '^cyy.
-^\^ Jip:
syjy ci^ S3 s^^y ji^/ c/i^ '^-^^ >"

^31,^ c^^ oi/^ Jiy3 \^. c^' ^J^ ^ ^/ ^
^lif jljW- 33J ^ ^.Oh ^^\y -»* jS'i : Jd' J---
.^\i 3^ ^ (y "^^ ' *J^/ ^" (^J "^ -> ^-s^j^
4< |^13i Jiy y\ : J^ o3\i y\y S>/y (J^^^
S3\ : (J (y'3> "I ^ 3\-- yy »^/^ ^^ ^W c^^«'
4lîj>c.
>L : ^.3^/ ^" jj3 y y'":S S3 y oi^y ^^ 3^-r^

jU3 J I. c-^.L^ j\i^ J^. f/^ i^^ ,^\5 ^:^' ^ A -ji
^ly. ei^y ? JL^ Ol-l (y'\3 \ 'S3\ -•Jö'^\'^'\J
S-^} oyJ33 3\^ . i/ S3^ 33J \xj\y J oi Al^ j\

i/ s:>\iJ h3 <i h3 : y jijU. J i]L ^_jL. : i/; ^\:f
-^3 y>-\-p 'b y La
'^ (^^3^ y 3\±
J^ P\ . aL S3\ 3\y-\ y\/j Aiy^ ^ Ji^ ^

jŞ 03 'OU-Lji J jJ LI : yy Ix, 33J C^3i ' y Jijlj^
. sy^
'^-J^ (yy 333 ^"^3^ ) S3i . y y^3i y îjL

Siy 4. jb-j 3yj J i/aj j\y. ^ ^^ ^^^ ^ ^
. iy i (^lilj
"^ J^y.^ y . i/ ^ y\yy y jljl ^ y ^\j ^jj^

dlyyy j\yy 3 y\i j[p>-^ sx_\^ S3 y^3i ill : o Syy^'
Syi 03y yyj <6
yd33' y^ : i/ dij \ y\^3i d\y y .jL jl

. ^jLJa Jj j- 4] 33J liiL A^y. jjo iJU, Jô, li
^ "^ (^.' J^J^ ^^3^-- ^. y\: y< Jy y.3i

U : y. jUlly,^ j'^^ l;:^ ^p jf^ ^_^^ ^^^
SHORT STORIES 255
oy sy y ^ e3iy3j sy^ S3 y ^ (yy ^^3^
Si\y 3 y^ S3^ ^^ La li y J W y^x}z- 3 y'^\yy
^3y y 3\l 1^ y}^^ 3^^ y^ J ^^ (J^3> Ji^^ ^

yA 3 \i S^ (J^3'? "^ <^^ ö^.\^ 4]L>ji yJ (5j1 . 4^ y^3^
? c5i i~:j\yo3 S3\i
Al^3i y \L.I : Al^_yy y t.>'3i "^ '^^^, y)ê^ ij^ ' (Jy^
. s'^ '^'^ y^
L_L>1 : yy Sj^ y\:A 4, y L^ji j o^'J- : yji ij^
, oyy i yy Ijl
sx}z> 3 yi s%- y'^y? ^ '^ cy W cs^ = (yy y^^^
33j Syy" '^ olj yS '^J33 j:* c^j/ y <^.J^

J 0 jy 4) cfX y. . yL^ S3\> y Syj (/4r-^l -? "/^ -'-'■^
4_/ o--jjjy t^. j* 1^^ 0^-^ '*! c^-?' '*^ ■^/■=* öy^tf-
ji <^^ (y'.Ay (y^r-^ ^ y^ y ^y^ -^j^^P-^^
4) i^LLijl i : "UA ^j/ t.^ Ji;^ : cP 'J*-' ^^' ^^
^\U jSLw. y> 43 Jl3i j-ol . c^ji yy- «jjXJl ^ '^^^yi y Xi
' Jr* " ^ ^tr* ^.^ (J^-i 3i ' J *i f"^. y ' j^-1" I
jî jivJl 4j >l . yj yi\A£- 43 c^y«i . py-y y y}i^ y\
3ir ' Cy^ Cr ^33 yy y (yt)^ (J-^ -^ î ujW 4^
ö\y y\ y -^"l* o^3p y^^ yy yy (y\ <5

! j^ e3iP /W j>^ j^ : j5^ ^y^ Jlj <) ul::ili
4_5 j»5 i ^ j^l : 4jl; <^l : ip j^ yî 03P S3p
fly -5 »Jy (y^.y ^ Cy^ "^y sa y "^ ySp^\
ol J "^ f l'* fjj (^ y Si y33 3 j^ C^jlf. Jjj
y^ j^ jj Ij J-^ Ji/ Û : Dji_/ v::/^. : j5 ^l
. ojiyvj Cj333 ' 4.j«-lj
^ 4j j^Jj jLpSj] yi:Ai\>s'^- y oIa ^_ji S3p
J I 43 dAJloio ^_i : oyyi ojy ytyyP yo_'J33 y\ ^y
J c^jl 3^ ^y ^ : iyj ^y yP Sy^ r^ ^y
(jP'y^ ^\Xj> 33j yy^j
: Îj ^JS J** Ji Ij Jwi yi/ : o3ip c/W J^ ^Îj
ej^jXÎ Ojjj y^y* yy\

SHORT STORIES 257
Cy ejiyJ jrJw>- ^*A y\ : ai\i s^ ' y> yy S3y
!>l : y JlSdjLwXJl JajL.| Jj_V . î yy Jyiy
y^ji iyi "^ c^jl^J jl 3 ' iyi "^ (yi3\i y "^y (y.3>
^? f ^^ sy yi 3 yy çrty yy yî ^,-yy S3y
' (^ JfH OJuJl-x:^ J.-I y" yiy (j^li "^ 1-5 yyî ^33J
pii yyLSJ\ . e3iy Oy W- J*c jl^ a] y\ : yS yp
Ji yy^ 33J 3 djy 33 y}pSj\ jl . y" 4j
y^ S3b y y 3^y (_yj33 y î\ (y3j-^ Jyj
. o3iy y^J Lj : j Ll3 I 4^ ojl : yy . y dLLfr jl^^
4j''Ia j LJlA liil . 4j_ji>. ^ p\y ^ î ^1 : ^D bii
: iy JjIj y j\iy ' " jlij-^ » ^* jLxjjLi . jl^ y
.iy li jy_ jLlo J lib jl)^
Lîi'' 1-J ^r-* (_rr^ (^ ^ t^l ûjl : J-J bii
(jr"^ S3 (f: iy c5jl^ j I-* (>ry^ : ^^3 "jl = J-j ^
y\ ' y-> -yy, oy yy j jii s_^ y^ y^^ ' "y^y y
Jiy'l ^L ojL> OjU j ojL O-Jsjli yl : Jj ^ . />î JLj^l
olji '^^^^ c^jl fy^ tyl (y-y-3 ' %> S^ ' y Sy^ y
y CyJi^ -Oilljl; : J3 ? ji-l'lj j.« y dLSCiji

SX) y\ 45 j^^lj c^jU J JU eyjji I : yS bii
y^ (JJ : 'Îf : J-J J c^^jb : JU oyJjU . ^^l Jjbil
j^_bil jl y\'-y^ 3 S3i oiy cLxJ I sy^ yJ bii JJ
: JJ 45sJ3 ' liJW-l-^ : 4ryi. yiy y\ 4jj1jJ ji_;.o . S3^
yy>\ t^y^ J^ Jil^-"". ^ Cî y\ y 1 : 4J ySy\a OjLJ ^\i
' y? iS^^ S33i yl (y-y y ry> -^Jj^ yy U- "^ Cî
yj3 jUo 4j . CjP 3io3 (y^3 3 OjJ 3io3 S3^ ^
: ulj^ C$1 : J-3 bii . y Jljb _yj 45 JCjIjo 4rJLls
cjSs J j L5 y J y . oyjj jyo jÛ- I ojj : ^ OJ ly-J
'^y C^lj-^lj y'^ 3 S33 j\^y ' oyjy
: JL3 jÛ- . S33i 1-^.j '*i y-^ yy (Jy'j ' iy j\,'^^
iJji y 3 oyjP j\y- öjJjjjSvj ûjX^ ju j_j J ^^ I OJJ
,_^:>-l^ . ^XJU 4jy>- . yKi pKJ' 4..I.m..J> vIa jJJji JU-J J Cj33
/y '^ öU;/ r'ij'* J^ = J^ ? c^* 'J'^ LyV ' y Ji^

"^ (Jy -^y. ' ^- ' ^^ ^-^ "^. '^. (y^y 33 yr^^
' y.^ j^ ^ Ö3y- (J ^y ' o3iy yi yy s^ -^ y
3 Ai y 3 JaJ 4i b y^'i J JU eyJlA . iy yy ^y
•c^jljll l^ ^y yy 3 yy 03y (yyf y J^J ij± (y>y-

THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOHN^ 250
JlyLJ *S^y Sy lîj* ^ (yi JU iy>\p 4j j eyÛ
*1^^ J S^ (yV^ J? J C^ yy^ y~>j\ . (Aj <--Û' yyi
: L^cî : oji/ i yi. ^y^ j>-i (^JJJ . ip yip ^j 4j
'Cj3ys^ l-'^.jl3li oi J A\yj A) ip Si
: jySi y^yy ^ y 3 öh^ ^3^ jl ^ ij> c^blj
jl . ^y^ 4Jll »yy jl y-^3 y\ "^ sji IfJ^ ^l^ s Jj
ipK-i yLi3^
3 ILJlA . (_î y\.^ y- b Sj-^ oi . (_$'^ ci^^J J'^
Js..fr. . « J y * 1-^ I J'* jl fj-^lj^j-J * L^lj'^ r-" jÇ
-^ l^. t^ ^. ^-J-^ ^J cr^ ^-s' "î^ = ^y^ Ji J

Jt::' J "^*^ -> fj*" Ji («^ (y'.J. -5 (»?i "^ "V y.3 ^J^,
: O-J jUj li J j»- «"5 c5j^ oy2 Ia (5y9-u_j jjj s'333 c^jl
^>»» \",m1a 33 . 45sj (_^J D Oj>- y b jb J J J yxL^
. yj y y 7JUA j (^jj c^jl ^,-J li c$lji <1 "Ol : S\3^
. i_/ J:>j5 Pyj 4j (^y;- j:,î J S3'^ oy^
ST. JOPIN 1:1-28.
\ ^l
* y ^ aJû j : jj t5Û- j,^ "Uij jl j : y*A 4jû IjJjA ei

' >
7yi> S3 y 3 y S3 ^, ''-y^ y^ * ji S3^ y} 1-^j* oi ojl
* oy 45 S3 ''} j-J '--L^
CÎS \)33 jl J * jj yi\ yS"^ ^33 "^ liJ jl J Ji oVj 1-^-? "^
: y dLjL) * cJ:, . xj (^jl oi (_$\>jjl" J bi (50 l JJ |jb \>uijl" oi
4J 43 oUi (^Jbb ji jl * jJ Lis-y Sy^ ' jlj-^jlj i^y=- S^ '^
* Cy^ o^) S3 ty ^, y j5 La Iwb sy^ S^ "Jj j1 y
* \x (5-X)b (50 Ijj __^ 4! 43 oU> !)L : yj t^b li JJ jl jl
^Lîi _jj y : 15 i <iL--5 y> O 0-«lj S^ ^33 jl
* oUii
Cy J* * cy '-^-^ Lji J : y (_^j 4) Ljij : y IJuLJioi
jljl 45 J^...«\5 y'y^y iyJ J^ (jljl Sy^ J oIa (5y>ejl
Jlj 4j Jjo (5^ jVljllo 4lj 43 li jU^ jlj 4j iy ^y
(_$iljl 4J 4J J y_y- 4] 4; 43 Jljl * j^ jUjI (5J C$j;J ''J O
* jy j}y yy^ "^ 'y^, ijUj I (5il jl 4] 4J J jJlj
: Si jUiJ (JJl^^ J <^y '^ j.rl (^y^ J j-^ '^ Ji '^ -5I -?
_^ 4! Lip-y_ # J^lj J («^j "J y : v^ 4J J Ijl" t^l y J Jn.J>U-
(5j1 :05 *j_j J>=j o y yA jI : 0^_i c5-^lj:^ J l-^ S-^}^ S3^
* y yf:.,) y 4] 4>Jy>- : oy j.«l JLj a] Si y S^3^ "^ '^
' f^-' y "^ ^-^ ^ ' "^^y' jUJji jUy,A S3 Sy '^

i
THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOHN 261
* Ji Qr-^ Pj-i "^. y^3 3 y3 ' b-s yy ^. <->i:^ '^y::
Ai\i yp Ji-jl ei 4i J 1^1' S3p ' oyX <5!>L- iaS ^j-Jvj^
* oji^ lyj<l (5jI jI
J jLau j_j«Jbjjl a] jlijfj y~y3 1-^ji C:^-^.^ 'H-'l J
i^ <5jlyl J * ? (^ yl : yy (J^^ S3\ y "^jl* olflij:^
: yy_ j\^ 3 * y [^ tyl ' ^P c^jl^l J ^y t^bU J
? c^^^^ jl yl s3^-y-(J^3 '^y'^'^'y^ sy "^ y^^
_j5 La ? ^JP y\ : cS jUj 4j ^yi jl * ^ 4^ : li j_^ly>. j
* ? Oj^ JjtJ Ji (_j^ : 03i3\> j\y\ 45 Jljl Aj jjiOj ,J\y
O^lj t-'j (_jiJ : Ji ^xŞy oi 4i j^_/xi I yj i j^l : J3
* jy j\yy> <1 Jljlj^sjl J * y yy. \y^ (yêy? ' CrH
3 yU\ AJ 3 : J ^^ y\ p\ : cS jLj 4j j yy^ öW J
jlj 4__J L__:j>-jJ * : y i X...yj yr y Vî I yi^ jl ^
ejLxjlj dXy 3y^ : y i Xyj S3 1 "4 j^l dlSî li j_^ljŞ-
aS y yy y\'>^ ' s^ y sh^ 4J 45 (5jI * j-mLjiI j5oI 45
jijl s'^ y Oji 1-* ^*^ oi 4J Lç- jl * eyS^j S3 (yy t$-*-J
* iy i spy 3 y 1-^ji: "^ Sy

VOCABULARY
The following words are intended to cover the Exercises, Short
Stories, Poetry and Prose, found in this Grammar only.
y" 1 (atii) thou. jip I Jsbl (ashkara kirdin)
Jiy I (atii-ish) to reveal, to declare, to make
you also known ; impera. 4Xj \jS-^\
yl\ (akhir) (1) fin¬ Cjy3jy (ashkaiit)
ally, lastly ; (2) well, of course cave, dugout.
(adam) jljjil (atibar)
man, human being. confidence, trust,
O-jyl (aziyat) pain, jiy jlyl (iqirar kirdin)
trouble, embarrassment, suf¬ to confess ; impera. Xj p ^

y ^
fering, j^ 1 (agar) if.
©iljl (irada) will J--LJ1 (alias) Elias.
bti (amm5) but.

jijl (ardan) Jordan,
^1 (amin)
^jl (arz) earth./
pers. pron. I.
sy (are) yes, in¬
deed ; also introduces an in¬

Jy^ (amin-îsh) I also
terrogative sentence.
Aj>\ (ama) we, us.

S^y (azadi) freedom,
liberty. jLJ! (insan)
man (as a human being).

joj \lJ\ (astandin.) to
take, to seize; see jjJL-> ; aL:., Vj 1 (angustila) ring.
impera. 4iJ»j jX; I (ango) you..
\y\ (isha'ya) Isaias. jT (au) water.

VOCABULARY 263
jl (ail) (1) pers. i_jl(bab)
pron. he, she it (2) dem. pron. (1) father; (2) chapter.
this, that; (3) def. art. the. 4jI (baba) (1) O
jlj! (awan) (1) they, father! (2) O dear! look herel
them; (2) these those.
î jl(aû dami) y I (bapir)
then, at that time. grand-father, ancestor,
-JLijjl (örishalîm) S3\(hari) light.
Jerusalem, jl3\, (bazar)
jjjl (aurö) to-day. market, square, downtown*
ejl (awa) ^.>AJl (bangkar)
this, this one, the same. crier, sounder, caller, inviter,
S3\ (awi) that same, jiy ci>ol(bang kirdin) to
J (ai) voc. part, O ! call, to invite, to summon;
S\ (i) Pî'ep. of. impera. 4X) dJ3d> I
S}^} (ikoi) J.jl (bawash)
his, her, its own. bosom, lap,
SX\ (idi) again, then, yp^ y^^ (b'je heshtin) to
accordingly, furthermore. leave, to depart; impera. yy^
jL-.* j'ujI (iman henan) Ö?«_j (bahs) 4lj
to believe; impera, 4lo jL>l about, concerning, tale, news.
jly_l : t^jljjl (eware, ewar) yp^ (bakhshin) par¬
evening. don, forgiveness, concession,
jiy yj**) (b'kheû kirdin)
I (ba) (1) wind; to supports to feed ; impera.
(2) rheumatism, goitre; (3) 4Xj y^
let (used as a vocative par¬ jJU (badan) body.
ticle). \y (bra) brother.

iy (bard) (bali)
(jr
stone, rock, yes, certainly, indeed.
jiy (birdin) to carry, JLLj (band) (1) cord,
to bear ; impera. A^ string, lace; (2) ridge, dam,
jlj ^ (birzhan) to lock, dyke ; (3) verse, rhyme.
roast, to scald ; impera. o3 -j Jj (bani)
3y (biro) son of, descendant of.
go! depart! 4j (ba)
dijy (birek) prep, to, by, with, in.
some, a little, a few.

y (bo) (1) prep, to,
jiy (brin) (1) sore,

for; (2) interog. why?
wound, ulcer; (2) to cut, to

y (bti) he, she, it
cut short; impera, ey
was, or became; 3rd pers.
jU'y,"... > (bastasman)
sing, of
poor dumb creature.
/»y (bom) (bo-m)
-V". I (bashkam)
for me.
perhaps, maybe ; see yj-i
/»y (biim) there was
to me, I possessed
OJ ly-j (ba-qorbanit)
(bim) have mercy on me !

( 3>. + O'
jy x}y (bawalad biin)
(lit. 'may I be your sacrifice').
to be born, to be begotten;
4X> (bika)
impera. 4j J^-!j-j
do; imperative of
jjj (biin) to be, to

% (balla)
become; impera.
but, nevertheless,
jdj (blind) y (be) (1) be
high, elevated, tall. (from 4j ) ; (2) without.

VOCABULARY 265
Ll*' O^ (baît-aniya) ' Jlyy(parizhani , par-
Bethany, îshanî) misery, hunger, dis¬
3i (bir) traction J ^y.
memory, mind. oyy (parin-awa) to
yy (bistin) cross, to pass over; impera.
to hear ; impera. 4^ ejo J*)
ejOô (begafa) 4L1j (pishila) cat.
pole- tax, subject-tax. y ^P^^)

(1) foot; (2) prep, to, on.
Jo (bel)
jLji(piaii) man.
shovel (wooden-shovel).
jy 1-U-j (paida biin) to
happen, to take place, to be-^

bii (padisha)
come evident, to appear; im¬
king, emperor, ruler.
pera. 4j 1-1^
JLj bii (padishayati)
y^ (pir) old, aged.
kingdom, reign,
<j~i (pesh)
Jil (pash)
before, in front of.
after, behind.
^^^JLji (peghambar)
jbl (pashan)
prophet.
afterwards,
oy.X-j (pekawa)
iil (pak)
to-gether.
neat, clean, pure, holy.
y] (pain) manure.
y (pir) much, full.
Sy. (pirai) fullness. , dljl"(tarik)
j^ji (pirsin) to ask, dark, obscure.
to question, to enquire; im¬ (5lxjjl"(tarikai)
darkness, obscurity.
pera. A^y
4J\îl"(taqana) y- (tû)
, only begotten, only child. pron, thou; see y\
Ajy**-} (tajruba) jJly" (tiianin) to be
temptation, test, trial. able ; impera. Sy^
CJ^ (takht) (1) yy (tawaw)

bench, bed; (2) throne; (3) all, complete, entire.
board, plank. jy (tÖz) dust.
y (tar) wet, moist.
jU- (jar) times, often
O^y (tirsan) sub, 'S3\>- (jari) once, once
fear; v. to fear; impera, ^__^ for all, once upon a time.
JUj (ta'ala) J^C=-(jalal) glory.

highest, (in reference to God),
Ls-B-s- (jahili)
jiy ,_,,j>t_,ij(ta'jub kirdin)
youth, childhood.
to admire, to wonder; impera.
oyy-- (jazira)
island, see bl
XyJl (ta'mid)
baptism,
Jr (jil)
clothes, attire, garb.
ji S xyi (ta'mid kirdin)
yy(]oah)
to baptize ; impera. a^ xyi
' answer, reply.'
yijû (taqsir)
fault, guilt,
jli i_;ly»-(joab dan) to an¬
jiy blj (tamasha kirdin) swer; impera. oX <w)ly»-
to see, to look, to view; im¬ j\y (jûan)
pera. 4Xj bUj" pretty, beautiful, nice.
I (tamba) y^ly>- (jawjahir)
punishment. diamond.
VOCABULARY 267
Cjy (jut) yy (chiiar) four.
pair, couple, twins, yoke. jy : Jy>- (chöli, chöl)
Jy^ (jûtî) desert, wilderness,
ox-driving, plowing, ^yç- (chöm)
ji^ Cjy (jiit kirdin) river, creek, stream.
to plow; impera. 4>o Oj»- jy>. (chûn) to go, to
jy>-(jiir) kind, sort. leave, to depart ; impera. y
yr (i^^) Ajd) y- (chtinka)
room, part, residence, place. because, since.
oy y (chiinawa) to go
iJU.(chak) again, to return, impera. o3y
good, well, sound, healthy.

y (chi)
jW. (chaii) eye, eye¬
what? which? that.
sight, bud, mesh, stitch.
Cy (chit)
jiy bU- (hasha kirdin)
thing; see O^"
to deny; impera. 4>sj bW
Oşr (chit) a contrac¬
O-jI^ (hikayat)
tion of (y + O what thou
story, tale, history.
jajU_şr(chaqandin) to
O US^j- (hukmat)
plant, to stake down; impera.
power, authority.
Cjy (haiit) seven.

jy^- (chilön)
how, how?
jLJ Jşr (chiloneki) as. P \>- (khanim)
Xy (chand) (1) how lady. Miss or Mrs.
many? how; (2) some, sev¬ y y vi- (khanimîyatî)
eral, few. lady-ship, lady-hood

yÛ- (khatir) (1) IkJ. (khata)
good-will, benevolence, (2) fof sin, transgression, fault.
the sake of. y- (kh5)
jijU- (khawen) clean. reflex, pron. self; see >y-
JaJU- IJli- (khödahafiz) jijlji- (khöardin)
goodbye! good-day! to eat ; impera. j>«j
tjl ^ (kharap) Oj»-(khöt) thyself.
bad, wicked, ruined. ^_^lj J-(khörai) free.
(Tj-^ (kharj) yy- (khosh)
expense, cost, tax. good, pleasant, splendid.
eyiS ^ (khir kirdinawa) pZ-y (khöshtir)
to gather, to pick ; impera. pleasanter, more splendid,
cJ4Xj j- db^ (khiishk) sister
dl^(kharik) 0~Jj-ij>- (khöshawist)
busy, occupied. beloved, amiable,
^y>- (khizm) relative jl-jjj.^ (khosh wistin)
^ (kholla) God. to like, to admire, to love ;
jiyy^->- (khalas kirdin) impera. Sy (J^y

to finish, to save, to set free, to ^y. (khom) myself.
liberate, to end; impera. jy- (khaiin)
Aio .^>Û- sleep, dream.
y)kJ>- (khalasi) Sf- (khoi)
salvation, redemption. self (own) him, her, itself.
aŞU- (khoUa-ya) j)_ji- (khiien) blood,
O God! O Lord! jJLL) y (khiiendin) to
(kham) read, to proclaim ; impera.
worry, sorrow.
VOCABULARY 269
JLi-(khiyal) thought, Iji (dra) pass, oijî
mind, imagination, illusion. he, she, it was given.
y»-3i (darhaq)
concerning, about.
i (d')
abbreviation for ei , in. y3i (dars) lesson.
li (da) a particle iJji (dark)
which usually follows a noun door, gate.
preceded by the prep, i (d') S3i (dare)
or oi (da), for the sake of eu¬ outside, outdoors^
phony, and is never translated.

\)ji (dariya) sea.
yy\i (da-bazin) to
yji (dizhmin)
jump down, to dismount; im¬
enemy, foe.
pera. <^3il^
Cî (dast)
ji^li (da-kirdin)
hand, handle, aid.
to lay on, to put on; impera.
j;> P y_Zî(dast pe kirdin)
4Xili
to begin, to commence; im¬
jli (dan) to give, to
pera. 430 y^ Cî
present ; impera. oX
jli Cî (dast dan) to
Pi (da-aû)
begin, to start, to take hold;
in this, in that,
impera. oX_ jyi
diili (daik) mother,
CJxi (dasht)
yii : jLjb(daiman, daim)
plain, praire.
always, constantly.
. bi (dö'a) prayer,
4jb (daya)
supplication, petition.
O mother! vocative of d\)\i
yi (dabe) it must
Pî (dagal)
with, along, together.
be ; he, she, it will be ; see jjj
Ji (dill) ^ji(dûaine)
heart, sympathy, yesterday.
y-yî (dill-khöshi) Si (de) he, she, it
consolation, condolence, comes ; see JIa
I i (dana)
Si (di)
then, therefore. he, she, it saw; see ys
viXJ i (dang) Si (di) another.
noise, voice, cry, sound.

S3\^ (diyari)
Lji (duniya) world,
present, gift
oi (da) (1) prep, in,

jZii (ditin) to see, to
within; (2) ten.
view ; impera. 4;Lj
JyAi (dahöl) drum.
jLji (disan)
j,5 (do) two.
again, once more.
t^lji (döaî)
45^ji (dika) another,
after, behind.
jiyi (diwan)
jji(dûr)
judgment, court.
far, distant.
4J \i-bji (diisakhana) 4J U«Jlyi(diwan-khana)
prison. court-house.
0*»J^ (dost) friend.
iiis-bji (doshag) jiylj (ra-birdin) to
mattress, bed, couch. pass, to pass by; impera. oyŞy
iJji (dûk) both.
Jji (döl) valley. jl-i-lj (ra-khistin) to
(S3i (dawe) he, she, it spread, to stretch, to extend;
wishes or wants (see j^J ) impera. 4i«j|j
*-j_ji : (^jji(dûwi> diiyiim) O (rast) (1) true,

second. sure, certain; (2) straight.
VOCABULARY 271
jiy 0-"lj (rast kirdin) to Jij (rash) black.
make straight; impera. O-xlj jlij (rishtin) to scat¬
a5\j ) j \LS Ij (ra-keshan) to ter, to spread ; impera. '^.y
draw out, to announce; im¬ Cy-3 (ra'yet)
pera. 4L^ Ij subject, citizen.
: jl>'jlj(ra-wistin, ra- i3j (riq)

jL--jlj wistan) to stop, to anger, wrath.
wait, to stand ; impera. 4l/<jlj Ojj(riit) naked.
J-'lj(rasti) truth. 'j33 (rozh) day, sun.
C^jl J (ravi) hunting, S'333 (rözhi)
jiy Jjlj (rayil kirdin) to by day, in the day time.
cover, to span; impera. a5vjJj1j illjj (ronak)
<_jj (rabb) Lord, bright, clear.
o J (rutba) (5 b I JJ (rönakaî) light,
rank, title, degree. brightness, clearness, illumi¬
JU-J (rajal) begging, nation.
JL>-j (rahati) comfort, yjj (roin) to go, to
quiet, ease; see leave, to depart; impera. jj>

>
y-3 (ruhum) ey33 (roinawa) to go
mercy, pity, compassion. again, to return ; impera. o33y
y.^3 (rahman)
S3 (rai)
merciful, compassionate, road, way, route, passage.
^3 (rahim) (_$yj(rewi) fox.
pitiful, graceful,
jljj (rizhan) to shed, jj 13 (zanin)
to pour out ; impera. fSJy to know ; impera. 4) \'y
dbj (risk) 0-*»-3 (zahmat)
food, sustenance. trouble, torment, paiji.

jU3 (ziman) _y (sar) (1) head,
(1) tongue; (2) language. leader; (2) on, on top, upon,
A^j (zambil) basket. over; (3) against.
j3 (zii) quick, fast, jl_^ (sarbaz) soldier.
prompt, soon, early. 5 _> (sard) adj. cold.
Jj3 (zor) (1) very, oiy y (sarkarda)
many, very many ; (2) force. officer.
4Jjj3 (zorna) flute. y.^ (safar)
^j3 (zawi) field. journey, voyage, trip.-
:>13 (ziad) y»y^ (salamati)
more, increase ; see JI3 safety, well being.
jiy ilj (ziad kirdin) to jy jly- (sûar bun)
increase, to progress; impera, to ride, impera. 4j jlj^
4Xj il3 jl" 5^ : Jy,.:(siitin, siîtan)
yj (zer) silver. to burn ; impera. J j-i
Ai y (sawata) basket,
j3 (zhin) large basket (used for carry¬
ing manure).
woman, wife,
^y- (se) three.

S333 (zhflre)
inside, within, (seyum) third.
jlj (zhian)
life, existence. p b (shakh)
cliff, peak, horn,
Jb (sal) year, age. jb (shar) city.
yy (sabab) SX b (shayidi)
cause, reason, motive. testimony.

VOCABULARY
273
y (shar) («i-U (zulm) injustice,

fight, quarrel, war, battle, abuse, tyranny, oppression.
^y (sharm) y>.U(a'jis)
shame, modesty. disgusted, weary, provoked.
' (shari'at) 4_jli b (azab)
law, code of law. pain, torment.
j\y (shwan) . (ajayib)
sheperd. wonderful, marvelous.
S3^ (shawe) oJl-^ (adalat)
in the night. equity, justice.
Ps-c- (afû)
V-Û" (sahib) (1) Mr., pardon, forgiveness.
mister; (2) possessor. J_^ (amal) deed, act.
JU ,_,j-L» (sahib mal)
landlord. aAc. (ghaliba)
Jr*r^ (sibhaine) tumult, confusion, noise.
morning, to-morrow in the
morning. yy (farmin) to re¬
Oj>v* (söhbat) quest, to order; impera. yy
conversation, chat jjjy: jZijy(fröshtin, frötin)
to sell ; impera. 4ijyj : 4jjyj
yLU (talab) J.jy(frösh)
request, prayer, demand, vender, seller,
jiy »_JJ9 (talab kirdin) to jli t^y(frai dan)
request, to pray, to demand; to throw away, to cast away;
impera. 45o ^^11» impera. eX sy
j_j-jy (farisi) Pharisee.

yi (faqir) (
poor, destitute, miserable, multitude, people, relative.
jiy yi (fikir kirdin) to jjJ \~y (qizhandin) -to
think, to meditate, to imagine ; cry, to scream; impera. 41) yu
impera. 4Xj ys 0^-*-J (qimat)
jy y (fer biin) price, value.
to learn; impera.
jip y (fer kirdin) to j\i'(kar)

teach, to instruct ; impera. work, deed, business,
4>o y
^^s, \i (kahin)
yi (qab)
(1) priest, (esp. of the Jews) ;
vessel, dish.
(2) astrologer.
y (qabir)
yS (kutin)
sepulcher, tomb, grave.
to say ; impera. Jj
jl__^ (qabiran)
^_..-.\ (kateb) book.
graves, graveyard, cemetery.
0<L»iy (kurdistan)
JLÎ (qad) about.
Kurdistan.
jiX^Jy-i (qabiil kirdin) to
jiy (kirdin) to do, to
accept, to receive ; impera.
make ; impera. i 4>o
4>o Jji
if
ojJ iy (kirdin-a-wa) to
yXi (qadim)
do, to repeat, to open, to
ancient, old.
loosen ; impera. , oj4X>

4^ (qissa)
word, news, story, anecdote.

^(kich)
girl, daughter, maid.
iJ (qat)
not at all, never. yP (krin)
J_^ (qöl) deep.N to buy ; impera. , r C,

Y ^y .
y (kör) mud, clay ly-i (kas) person.
VOCABULARY
275
'/
4JL3 (kalima) jly (gran)
term, word, (divine) word. heavy, high priced, dear.
Scriptures. jl^ (garan)

ypdi (kulösh) straw. to return ; impera. .S r^
.y-f ^ ..
y (kam) little, few. ey\y) (garan-a-wa) to
y (kin) with, by, turn back, to return; impera.
beside, at; see
45 (ka) that, who. yp (girtin) to take^
jy (kur) son, boy to catch, to seize, to take hold
iy (kaiish) shoe. of; impera. oyo

y.
J (kie) who ? .^ (garm)
jb-3 (keshan) to en¬ warm, hot,
dure, to draw; impera. J^(gil)

(J~^. earth, clay.
«_jL_3 (kaif) r-lLj (gunah)
pleasure, liking, desire. sin, transgression, fault,
yp-zJuJi (kaîf-khösh) ojy (gaura)
happy, joyful. large, big, important.
Ay (kieha) "J'iJj^ (görinawa) to

which? which one. exchange ; impera. eyy
y (keii) OijJ (gosht)
mountain, cliff. meat, flesh, carnal lust.^
jCr(giyan)
15 (ga) ox. soul, spirit, self, life.
-y -^
jlj 15 (garan) yy-i : yP^ (gain, gaishtin)
herd, flock, drove, cattle, to reach, to attain, to ripen, to
oljb (ga-wan) understand ; imp.era. 4>o
cattle-herder.
276
J (l') prep, from, her or it; (2) there,
in, on ; a contraction of. Ö3y J (^^ khorin)

^3V(lazim) to drive ; impera. S3y^ J
necessary, important. jb J (le dan) to beat,
S^ (lai) to strike ; impera. oX J
direction, side of, beside. OjS (lera) here.
yPl (laiq) worthy, ^1 (lefa) blanket,
deserving, suitable, fit, quilt, cover.
j^ (labar) S^S (lewi) Levi,
on account of, because of, for, a levite
^j.y (la-sar)
on, at, over, against. jU (man) to
v,^(lakin) with, at, remain ; impera. 4^^.
beside ; contraction of j5 4] i^yt-^ (mahablib)
Sy (l'kûe) where. beloved.
yJ (I'neu) JU (mal) (1) house,

in, among, between.
home; (2) goods, riches.
3yp (I'neii-ii)
OoU (manga) cow.
among you,
jyU (maqol)
4] (la) from.
respectable, famous
y,A] (la sar)
0--»«--« (mahabat)
. about, concerning, against.
love, affection.
P (laii) from this,
y (mar) sheep,
from that ; contraction of jl 4]
(^y (lawai) there, jiy. (mirdin)
from there ; contraction of to die ; impera. (Sy '

^jl4Î
3^3y (mirwar) pearl.
J(le) (1) on him. dbjy« (mirishik) hen.

VOCABULARY 277
% (malla) 4J (na) not, no.
priest (Mohammedan). y. 4J (na kher) no.
y (min) pers. pron. y y (nöker) servant,
me, my; from y\ jLj (na-elin)
yXjt (mindal) they will not permit; from
infant, child. j^l) (elan) to allow, to per¬
jy (manzil) room, mit; impera. 4jLj
lodgigng, station, day's jour¬ 4J (niya) not,
ney. nothing, no.
4,» (ma) us; see 4«1 û(neii) (1) in, iu'
yy (mösa) Moses. side, within; (2) name; (3)
-^ (mesha) half.
woods, forest, grove. 0-^ljej«J (newa-rast)
middle, center.
(3-=»-u (na-haq) unjust,
jljijl (nardiraii) sent, 4 (a) (1) verbal
jijl (nardin) to send, suffix, contracted from 4) (ya)
to dispatch; impera. ey he, she, it is ; (2) to, unto, into.
y^ (nasin) to know, J\a (hatin) to come,
to recognize, impera. y\^ to arrive ; impera. ojj y
jl (nan) (1) bread; e»_o\A (hatin-a-wa) to
(2) lunch, meal ; (3) to place, come again, to return; impera.
to put; impera. Jj "J-ti \''3033)

4i)lj I (na-öallah) no, oy (habiin)
by God! to exist; impera. y^
(naqima) La (hata) until, so
setting, mounting. that, in order that.

/tLA(hata-kû)) JjA (hawal)

in order that, so that. first, initial.
y (har) (1) only, JjA (hawale)
each, every; (2) just, exactly, first, at first, beginning.
surely. 71UA (hich) no,
y- y (har chi) nothing
what-ever, whatsoever. (J3v^:*A (hich-kas)
(yyi y (har kameki) no person, no one, no body.
whosoever, y^y> (heshtin)
to leave; impera. 4I0

jlyjb (hazar)
thousand, 1,000. jL»A (henan)
to being; impera. 4lu

oo. A (hasp) horse.
4;A (haya)
jLjLA (hal-istan) to
rise, to get up; impera. there is, there exists.
JyJLA (hal-girtin)
J (Ö, wa) conj. and.
to take away, to lift up, to
carry, to accept ; impera. o/a 3 (Û) pronomial
suffix, you.
y^ (hamii)
all, every, each, 1 J (wa) so thus ;
contraction from Uj
*yy (hamisha)
always, continually. (_^lj (wajib)
yLa^ (hunar) necessary.
feat, deed, 4i)lj (öallah) sure, .
j-a (haii) that one. by God!
lyb (hawa) weather, jlj (wan) them ; the
temperature, climate oblique cases of ijljl

VOCABULARY 279
0»-j (wakht) yy _ôj (wa-gir kaiitin)
time, when. to be found ; impera.
yy-3 (wakhteki) ey<i y oj
when, once. S3 (wai) that which,
y y 33 (war-girtin) to usually preceded by 4)
take hold, to seize ; impera. S3 (wi) him, her, it ;
^y.33 [the oblique cases of jl : sy
jjj (warin) L-jj'(wista) now;
come ye! (see jjU> ). see u-jjl
OJJ (wara) come ! jL-jj (wistin) to wish,
^jA»3 (watan) to want, to like ; impera. Sy.
native land, country.
' P 3 ' y 3 (waki, waku, l(ya) (1)0!
iJj wak) as, like, similar to. (2) or.
oj (wa) (1) used jl (yan) or.
with verbs as a prefix or affix t^jb JU (yadgari)
signifies the action to open, to remembrance.
repeat; (2) also denotes direc¬ ry-' f' y. (yasii masih)
tion, -ward: Jesus Christ
ôj (wa-bir) lyz (ish)
memory. adverbal suffix, also.
yy jioj (wa-dar kaiitin) yo (ya'ni) that is,
to go out, to depart; impera. namely.
oyo jioj tii» (yek) one, a,
JIa (_;ly>-oj(wa-jöab hatin) 4i (ya) he, she, it is.
to give account ; impera, cîy^ (yahiidi) a Jew.
y <Jyo3 j LL>-y (Johanna) John.

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liJi-"

Exercises for translation into Kurdish

Short stories illustrating Kurdish

Composition and Syntax

Translator of Vogt*s BibU History, Luther's Catmchism and Sverdrup's Explanation

Kurdish. Author of a Hymn Book, andEditor of a monthly

newspaper, also in the Kurdish language.

Published by THE INTER-SYNODICAL EV.

AUGSBUBG PUBLISHING HOUSE

Colonel ^lexanbcr 3j>ao

first resident Russian Imperial Consul

who fell in the battle of Mianduah, Dec. 28th, 1914

for his Diplomatic talents, his Heroic spirit, his great

Wbii ^lume ii Mibitntttt.

The Kurdish peopk have a very ancient history. Their

Just as the learned historians disagree as to the sources

Modern Iranian languages, a sister language of Modern Per¬

It is well known that the Kurdish language embraces sev¬

eral dialects \yhich differ as you approach the borders of the

basis, so as to use one language for several groups of dialects.

The Pioneer Kurdish Grammarian was P. M. Garzoni, who

east of Mosul. His Grammar was printed in Rome, year

1779. Fortunately this first treatise on the Kurdish language

was written at Amadia, within the borders of that district

where, as was discovered later on, some of the best Kurdish

dialects are spoken.

Since the time of Garzoni, some very able treatises on the

splendid treatise on the dialects of the Bebeh Kurds around

of the dialects of East-Central Kurdistan was written by Oscar

To discover the best Kurdish among these many dialects

Prof. Beresin claims that the purest and best Kurdish is

As to the dialects spoken in East-Central Kurdistan, be¬

From the comparative study of these dialects, and from

lect." And in speaking of the near relationship of the Somai,

as clear and simple a system as possible, so that others, like

Soujbulak, Kurdistan, Persia, 1916

SINCERE GRATITUDE is expressed to the following

Introductory Remarks Pages 7-11

CHAPTER I.THE KURDISH ALPHABET

Form of Letters 13 Vowel Changes 23

Gender . ". 29 Declension 37

CHAPTER III.- -ADJECTIVES

Separate Personal Pronouns 61 Declension of the Demonstra¬

The 'Stems' of the Kurdish The Negative and Prohibi¬

The Accent of the Verb 88 din) ...........137

Adverbs of Manner and Adverbs of Interrogation. . .207

CHAPTER VII.- -PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions that take Post¬ ing words 209

CHAPTER VIII.- -CONJUNCTIONS

Copulative Conjunctions 212 Conditional Conjunctions ..213

CHAPTER IX. INTERJECTIONS

CHAPTER X.FORMATION OF KURDISH WORDS

Nouns 215 Adjectives 219

CHAPTER XI.KURDISH COMPOUND WORDS

Words formed of an Adjec¬ Words formed of a Participle

Words formed of two Nouns and a Verbal Noun 224

CHAPTER XII.KURDISH ORTHOGRAPHY

CHAPTER XIII. MISCELLANEOUS

Designation of Years 228 Names of Days, present, past,

THE KURDISH ALPHABET