Seed Storage Techniques A Primer

The Revitalizing Rainfed Agriculture Network (RRAN) is a growing network

of civil society organizations, research institutions, policy makers, donors
and individuals engaged in evolving a differentiated agricultural policy with
enhanced public investments and support system for rainfed areas in India. The
Comprehensive Pilots (CPs) are part of the RRA Networks action research
programme that seeks to establish evidence and experience on the ground, in
support of the various propositions that the Network has developed. In order
to offer support for CPs a set of organizations have been identified as Nodes
on specific identified themes such as seeds, soils, water, millets, fisheries,
livestock, credit, markets and institutions.
The Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (CIKS) has been identified and
functioning as the nodal anchor for the theme of seeds. A series of booklets is
being published on various technical and institutional aspects of seed systems
to build the capacity of the CPs as well as various field groups who are involved
in the efforts to build community managed seed systems.
This book explains in detail various principles and methods of seed storage.
Factors affecting storage, care and preparation before storage have been
discussed. Several insect traps that could be used in storage godown both to
monitor and trap pests have also been explained. There are also sections on
rodent control, bird control besides control of microorganisms. Details about
several seed storage structures have also been provided.

Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai

www.ciks.org

Revitalising Rainfed Agriculture Network

www.rainfedindia.org

Seed Storage Techniques A Primer

Authors
K. Parimala, K. Subramanian, S. Mahalinga Kannan and
K. Vijayalakshmi
Editorial Assistance
R. Abarna Thooyavathy
Vijay R. Subbiah
Editor
K. Vijayalakshmi, CIKS

Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai

Revitalising Rainfed Agriculture Network
December 2013

Title

Seed Storage Techniques - A Primer

Authors

K. Parimala, K. Subramanian,
S. Mahalinga Kannan and K. Vijayalakshmi

Editorial Assistance

R. Abarna Thooyavathy and Vijay R. Subbiah

Editor

K. Vijayalakshmi

Technical Consultancy

S. Mahalinga Kannan, Retd. Asst. Director of

Agriculture, Government of Tamilnadu

Publication

December 2013

Cover Photograph

Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems

Cover Design

Vijay R. Subbiah and S. Ramesh

Typesetting

S. Ramesh

Design Consultant

Pavithra Sankaran

Published by

Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (CIKS)

Seed Node of the Revitalising Rainfed Agriculture
Network

Financial Support

Revitalising Rainfed Agriculture Network

Copies can be had from

Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems,

No.30,Gandhi Mandapam Road, Kotturpuram,
Chennai 600 085
Ph: (044) 24471087, 24475862
Email: [email protected] /[email protected]
Website: www.ciks.org
The RRA Network, Secretariat
WASSAN, House No. 12-13-450
Street No. 1, Tarnaka
Secunderabad - 500 017, Andhra Pradesh.
Email : [email protected]
Website : www.rainfedindia.org

Printed by

PM Digital Products
Konar Maligai, 25, Peters Road
Chennai - 600 014.

PREFACE
The Revitalizing Rainfed Agriculture Network (RRAN) is a growing network of
civil society organizations, research institutions, policy makers, donors and individuals
engaged in evolving a differentiated agricultural policy with enhanced public
investments and support system for rainfed areas in India. Based on the vast experience
on the ground and analysis of issues, RRA Network is evolving specific propositions
on various aspects of rainfed agriculture such as seeds, soils, water, crop systems,
millets, livestock, fisheries, credit, markets and institutions. The Comprehensive Pilots
(CPs) are part of the RRA Networks action research programme that seeks to establish
evidence and experience on the ground, in support of the various propositions that the
Network has developed. In order to offer support for CPs a set of organizations have
been identified as Nodes on specific identified themes such as seeds, soils, water,
millets, fisheries, livestock, credit, markets and institutions.
The Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (CIKS) has been identified and
functioning as the nodal anchor for the theme of seeds. The CPs started functioning in
the year 2012 and in June 2012 the seed node convened a meeting of representatives
of CPs for an inception workshop in Chennai. During this workshop the CPs shared
their proposals and plans of work as well as their thinking about the work that they plan
to undertake in the area of seeds. Presentations were made during the workshop on
how to undertake a situation analysis with respect to seeds, the elements of designing
a robust seed system for rainfed areas and also about undertaking a planning exercise
through which each CP can proceed towards the establishment of a robust community
managed seed system in its area of work. A part of the workshop was to identify the
specific needs expressed by each of the CPs in terms of the support and help they would
need in the area of seeds. A beginning was made in terms of the capacity building
exercise through a series of presentations.
Beginning from the early part of the year 2012 Dr. G. Venkat Raman of the Seed
node had started making a series of visits to various CPs. During the visits he provided
help and assistance to the CPs for performing situation analysis, evolving a plan for a
robust seed system for the area undertaking capacity building exercises and also trying
to create linkages between the groups and scientists and institutions who could provide
technical support. During this process he also identified various needs in the form of
topics on which training and capacity building was required.
Subsequently, on two different occasions when the seed node team met the
CPs in Bagli in Madhya Pradesh in November 2012 and in Tiptur in Karnataka in
December 2012 there were opportunities to review the progress of each CP as well
as provide technical inputs and training. Earlier this year, towards the end of July
2013 a workshop was held by the seed node in the CIKS Technology Resource Centre
in the Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu. In this workshop a series of technical
trainings were provided on various aspects of seeds. The training was not only in the

form of lectures and presentations but also included field work, experiments, visits to
government and private seed farms and seed production centres as well as meetings
with the officials of the Directorate of Agriculture and Seed Certification departments.
During these meetings drafts of some of the technical training modules that were
prepared were circulated and comments and suggestions were sought from the CPs.
Based on these efforts and also building upon discussions that took place during the
visits to CPs a set of topics had been identified to produce training modules. We expect
this process to be dynamic and interactive so that changes can be made based on the
suggestions received from the various user groups. A series of reports and books that
have been circulated and discussed as drafts and presentations are now being brought
out as publications.

A.V. Balasubramanian
Coordinator RRA Seed Node

Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems

Chennai, December 2013

About this Book

This book explains in detail various principles and methods of seed storage. Factors affecting
storage, care and preparation before storage have been discussed. Several insect traps that could
be used in storage godown both to monitor and trap pests have also been explained. There are
also sections on rodent control, bird control besides control of microorganisms. Details about
several seed storage structures have also been provided.

CONTENTS

Introduction

Factors Affecting Storage

Care and Preparation before Storage

Insect Traps for Storage Godown

Rodent Control

Control of Birds and Microorganisms

Seed Storage Structures

10

References

13

Appendix - I Storage Pests

14

Appendix - II Common and Scientific Names of Plants

17

INTRODUCTION

eeds should have a good storage facility,

since seeds are the main genetic linkage
between two generations of a plant species.
Seeds should be stored in such a manner, that
its germination capacity and vigour should not
decline. In temperate regions, seeds can be stored
at ambient conditions for longer period, whereas
in tropical and sub tropical regions parameters
such as temperature and moisture should be
adjusted as per the requirement to preserve the
seed vigour.

Protection from pests.

Drying of seeds before storing.

Storing well cleaned seeds in the storage

godown.

Period from physiological maturity to

harvest.

Period from harvest to packaging.

Period from packaging to storing.

Period from storing to marketing of seeds.

On farm storage (Purchased seeds used for

planting in the field).

Storage in the godown is highly influenced by

external environmental conditions. All other
stages should be monitored and care should be
taken to ensure the physical purity, germination
viability and vigour of the seeds.

The major steps involved in seed storage are,

The storage of seeds is initiated at the time

of attainment of physiological maturity and
maintained till the next sowing season. Hence,
the different stages involved in seed storage are
as follows:

Steps in Seed Storage

Dry and cool storage conditions.

Sanitation of seed storage area.

Different Stages of Seeds Storage

Nearly 30% of the seeds are lost during storage

period due to insects, rodents and microorganisms.
The storage period begins right at the time of
attainment of the physiological maturity of seeds
in the field till it is planted in the next season.
Care should be taken to preserve the germination
capacity, viability and vigour of the seeds. This
manual explains various principles and methods
of seed storage.

FACTORS AFFECTING STORAGE

According to Harringtoms thumb rule, a

1% decrease in seed moisture content doubles the
potential of the seed. This rule is applicable only
at a moisture range of 5-14%, because moisture
level below 5% causes physiochemical changes
in the seeds, whereas above 14% it is prone to
insect and mold attack. Another rule states that
with every 5oC decrease in storage temperature,
seed life is doubled. It holds good for temperature
range of 0 - 50oC. The safe moisture content
depends on the storage period, type of storage
structure, variety of seeds and type of packaging
materials used. Eg. if cereals are to be stored in
open storage, moisture content of 10% is suitable;
if it is in sealed containers then the seeds are to be
dried up to 4 - 8% of moisture content. The safe
moisture levels of some seeds are as follows.

actors that affect stored grains can be

classified into internal and external factors.
Internal factors include kind and variety
of seeds, seed quality and moisture content. The
term external factor denotes relative humidity,
provenance, temperature and activity of insects
and other microorganisms in the storage area.

Internal Factors
1. Kind and variety of seeds
Seed storage is greatly influenced by the kind
and variety of the seeds. Some seeds have short
storage life (Eg. groundnut, soyabean), some
have medium storage life (Eg. wheat, cotton) and
while some like rice and beans can be stored for
longer period. Generally, starchy seeds due to
their hygroscopic nature (ability to retain moisture
content) can be stored for a longer period of time
when compared to oil or proteinaceous seeds.

Crop

Maximum moisture
content

2. Quality of the seeds

Millets

12%

Quality of the seeds can be greatly influenced by

various environmental conditions from the stage
of physiological maturity to harvest. Factors like
soil health, availability of nutrients to the plant,
nutrient deficiency during plant growth, damage
by pest and diseases may affect the quality of
the seeds before harvesting. Seeds which are
subjected to weathering process may lose their
germination viability due to the mechanical
damage. Healthy, plumpy and undamaged seeds
can be stored for a longer period of time when
compared to damaged and deteriorated seeds.

Paddy

13%

Cowpea

9%

Pulses

9%

Maize and Sorghum

12%

External Factors
1. Relative humidity (RH) and temperature
Seeds are hygroscopic in nature. Hence they
attain specific moisture content when subjected
to a given level of atmospheric humidity at a
particular temperature. This is called moisture
equilibrium content. This moisture equilibrium
content varies from seeds to seeds. Generally
it is lower in oily seeds than that of the starchy
seeds even at the same relative humidity and
temperature. Seeds should be stored in dry and
cool conditions in order to ensure the quality of
the seeds during storage.

3. Moisture content of the seeds

The most important factor influencing viability
of the seeds during storage is the moisture
content of the seeds. If the moisture content of
the seed is more, it harbours frequent growth of
molds and attack by pests. Seeds with more than
14% of moisture content deteriorate quickly,
whereas very low moisture content is also
detrimental to seed quality.
2

Classification of Seeds based on

Storage

2. Provenance
Seeds harvested from different climatic regions
and at different times show differences in viability.
The seeds harvested from an area of high RH and
temperature at the time of seed maturation or
harvest can be stored for lesser period than the
seeds from low RH and moderate temperature
area.

Seeds can be categorized into three types based

on the longevity of the seeds during storage,
1.

Orthodox seeds

2.

Intermediate seeds

3. Activity of insects and other

microorganisms

3.

Recalcitrant seeds

Bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, rodents and birds

may affect the seeds in storage. Bacteria do not
show any significant effect on the stored seeds,
since it needs water for its proliferation. Storage
fungi like Aspergillus and Penicillium infect
the seeds and produce mycotoxins that will
deteriorate the seed quality. Insects and mites
cause severe damage especially in warm and
humid conditions. Birds and rodents cause huge
loss of seeds during storage period.

1. Orthodox seeds
Orthodox seeds are also called long lived seeds.
They can be stored for a relatively longer
period. They can be dried up to 5% moisture
level without any injury and can also withstand
freezing temperatures. Eg. Rice, Maize etc.
2. Intermediate seeds
These seeds can also be stored for longer
period, but it cannot withstand low temperature.
It tolerates the drying to low moisture level.
Eg. Legumes, Papaya, Citrus etc.

The general RH and temperature for multiplication

of various biological organisms in seed storage is
as follows,

3. Recalcitrant seeds
Recalcitrant seeds can be stored only for a short
span of time. Since it cannot be dried to less than
30% moisture level, chances of pest and disease
incidence is more. It cannot withstand drying
under direct sun. These seeds never get into
dormancy stage, but continue to enter into the
next stage of germination. Eg. Mango, Jack etc.

temperature (oc)
organism

range for
multiplication

relative
humidity
optimum
(%)
range

Insects

21-24

27-37

30-95

Mites

8-31

19-31

60-100

Fungi

8-80

20-40

60-100

Microbes

8-80

26-28

91-100

CARE AND PREPARATION BEFORE STORAGE

eeds should be dried to optimum moisture

level, less than 12% for starchy seeds
and less than 9% for oily seeds. Seeds
should be cleaned thoroughly and should be free
from trash, insect and microbial damage. If the
relative humidity is low or maintainable, then the
seeds can be stored in paper envelopes. Storage
containers should be reasonably inexpensive,
airtight with low thermal conductivity. Storage
containers should be moisture proof which
includes sealed tins or aluminium cans, glass jars
with gasket lids.

/ Chaste tree / Common leucas / Holy basil in

equal quantities and put it on hot coal. At the
time of fumigation, the windows and doors of the
seed storage godown should be closed tightly to
avoid the entry of fresh air. Keep the vessel with
hot coal and leaves at the centre of the storage
godown. There should not be any gunny bags
or easily inflammable material up to 3 ft around
the fumigation vessel. The fumigation should be
done only during evening hours. The fumigation
vessel should be kept in the room for 30 minutes
to 1 hour depending upon the size of the room.
The dead moths and insects should be cleared
from the storage godown next day morning.
Fumigation process should be done once a month
during storage period.

Selection and maintenance of storage godown

Storage area should be easily accessible for
loading and unloading operations. The storage
area should be relatively moisture proof which is
necessary for the maintenance of seed moisture
content. The godown should be clean and dry.
Storage area should be termite and rodent proof.
There should not be any cracks or holes in the wall
and floor of the storage godown. Disinfestation
is done by spraying neem oil solution - 200 ml of
neem oil should be mixed with 2 litres of water.
It is recommended for a single storage room of
200 square feet. After spraying neem oil solution,
the rooms can be fumigated with the powder of
sweet flag rhizome (Acorus calamus). Before
stacking the seeds or grains, the storage godowns
or rooms and storage structures or receptacle
should be cleaned and made free from insects.

Natural Products Used in Storage

Pest Control
1. Neem products in pest control

Fumigation of the godown

For fumigation of the storage area, the following
things are required:
Vessel with a wide mouth made of iron, aluminium
or mud, rope, coal, Vaividangam / sweet flag,
leaves of Vitex (five - leaved chaste tree / Nochi) /
Neem / Leucas (common leucas / Thumbai)
The following procedure should be followed for
fumigating the storage godown:
Take hot coal in a vessel with a wide mouth.
Take any two types of green leaves of Neem
4

Take required amount of neem, pongamia and

vitex leaves and shade dry it till it becomes
papery. Seeds are filled up to th of a storage
bin and covered with a clean cloth. Mix the
above leaves and spread a handfull on the
surface of the seeds in the storage bag or bin.
This method can also be followed in bigger
storage containers.

Seeds can be stored by mixing with Neem oil

(2-3 ml / kg of seed). 50 kg gunny bags of
any seeds need 150 ml of the oil for mixing.

Neem seed powder can be mixed at the rate

of 1% to the volume of the seed. This is
practiced for the control of khapra beetles,
rice weevils etc. which is found in storage.

Mix 30 gms of ginger rhizome powder and

50 gms of neem kernel powder with 1 kg of
any of the pulse variety such as cowpea, soya
bean, redgram etc.

The following practice is a traditional measure

followed by several farmers for storage pest
control. Spread the leaves of Neem and
Pungam layer by layer over a cloth placed in
a vessel for 1/4 feet. Then fill the vessel with
seeds up to the surface level and cover it with
a thick layer of sand to prevent pest attack.

2. Other plant products in pest control

Neem oil can be mixed with the seeds at the

rate of 2% by the weight of the seed. Using
oil is more effective than the leaves.

Mix 50 grams of custard apple seed powder

with 1 kg of any of the pulse variety like soya
bean, cowpea, redgram, etc., to prevent the
attack of the pulse beetle.

Mix the seeds of Maize, Wheat etc., with

dried fruits and leaves of Vantulsi (wild Tulsi
- Ocimum) at the ratio of 1:100 to prevent
from the weevils in storage.

Store cereals and millets in bags or baskets

made from the date palm fronds and after
mixing it with neem leaves and ash. Plaster
the top portion with cow dung to prevent the
entry and spread of insects.

Mix blackgram seeds with mustard oil

@ 10-15 ml per kg of seeds and store it in
earthen pots covered with dry cloth.

3. Wood ash in storage pest control

Wood ash is a safe and effective pest control
material. Mix equal quantity of seed and wood
ash to prevent the attack of beetles and other
storage pests. Lantana camara leaf ash is very
effective against pests attacking the sprouts of
stored potato.

Seed coat of Mahua (Madhuca latifolia) @

1-1.5 kg per kg of paddy seed is mixed before
storage.

INSECT TRAPS FOR STORAGE GODOWN

imely detection of storage pests plays

a major role in the control measures. In
order to detect the insects the following
traps developed by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore can be used in the storage
godowns.
1.

TNAU insect probe trap

2.

TNAU pit fall trap

3.

TNAU 2 in 1 trap for pulse beetle

4.

Indicator device

5.

Automatic insect removal bin

1. TNAU insect probe trap

2. TNAU pit fall trap

The insect trap should be kept in paddy or wheat

bags vertically with the plastic cone downside.
The round red cap should be placed at the level
of the seed or grain. Insects will move towards
air and enter into the main tube through the
holes. Soon after its entry, it falls into the white
detachable cone at the bottom, which can be
unscrewed once a week to remove the insects.
This trap can be placed on top of 6 inches of the
seed or grain, where the insect activity is more
during initial stage of storage. It can remove
nearly 80% of the insects within 10-20 days.

This trap is easy to handle and looks like a top.

Top of the trap has minute 3 mm perforations and
a cone shaped bottom. The inner side of the cone
is coated with a sticky material to hold the trapped
insects. This trap should be kept immersed in the
storage structure and once the insects enters into
it will get trapped in the sticky material.
3. TNAU 2 in 1 model trap

This trap contains the perforated tube,

collecting tube, cone shaped pit fall trap,
perforated lid and bottom tapering cone.

It is suited for trapping the pulse beetles

4. Indicator device
It consists of a cone shaped perforated cup with
a lid at the top. The cup is fixed with a container
coated with a sticky material. Before storing
pulse or cereals, 200 gms of the material should
be taken in the cup. If it has any pest infestation,
pests start emerging and slip into the trapping
container. By observing the pest in the container,
stored materials in the main storage can be sundried. 3mm perforated cups can be used for pulses
and 2 mm cups for cereals.
perforation and reach the aerated area. They fall
into the collection vessel and can be removed.
This type of bin can be used for storing paddy
and pulses to get rid of storage pests like rice
weevil, lesser grain borer, red flour beetle, saw
toothed beetle etc. This type of bin is available in
2, 5, 25, 100 and 500 kg capacities.

5. TNAU Automatic insect removal bin

The storage bin has as outer container, inner
perforated container, collection vessel and a
lid. Seeds or grains can be stored in the inner
container and the space between the inner and
outer covering is well aerated. Insects enter the

RODENT CONTROL

ats live in all our dwelling places. They

eat food grains and seeds that are stored
in the house and also in the storage
godown. They shed droppings on the grain while
they are eating it and can also spread diseases
like plague, rat fever etc., in human beings which
are quite dangerous. There are a variety of rats
which cause damage to stored products. They are
the house rat, house mouse, Norway rat, smaller
bandicoot and larger bandicoot. A variety of
physical, mechanical and cultural techniques can
be followed for its control. Percentage of damage
caused by rodents during storage is 2.50%.

Automatic door closers should be provided to

prevent the rat entry.

Regular sanitation and inspection of godown

is essential for effective rat control.

Water stagnation close to the godown should

be avoided.

Hygiene and sanitation

Timbers, bricks, papers, leaves or any rubbish

material near the storage godown should be
removed well before storage and cleaned.

Empty storage containers should be cleaned

then and there or removed from the storage
godown immediately.

Physical Methods
Rat proofing

Mechanical traps

The rat problem can be solved to a great extent

if the entry of rats is prevented in houses, stores
and godowns. This can be done by building rat
proof godowns. The following should be kept in
mind while constructing or selecting godowns.

In case of storage godown wooden cage or mice

cage can be used for the control of rats. Bait is
used in the trap to attract the rat to come into the
trap. Bait may be any food like pieces of meat,
dried fish, bread etc., that rats like to eat. Rats
like the bait when it has sugar, molasses, or some
sweet food, dry fish, coconut piece, onion etc.
Check the trap or cage daily and make sure the
bait is still there. Once the rat is caught into it, dip
the cage into water to kill the trapped rat. After
every usage, wash the trap thoroughly before
next usage.

Godowns should be away from habitation.

They should be constructed on higher plinth

area.

The godown should be a concrete structure.

Trees or its branches should not be

overhanging on the godowns roof.

Metal or wire mesh should be fitted on all

windows, ventilators, gutters and drains.

The manholes should be covered properly.

The clearance between door and floors should

not be more than inch. The door should
also be provided with a 9 inch metal sheet
lining at the bottom.

The foundation of the storage place should be

3 feet above the ground level.

Walls and floors should be plastered with

smooth cement. Any rat hole which is
observed must be immediately closed with
cement and if the hole is big enough it should
be filled with glass pieces.

Indigenous methods of rat control

Place unripe papaya fruit pieces in the corner

of the storage godown. When rats eat these
fruits, the mouth tissues get damaged due to
the chemical substance in the papaya fruit.
For one room, we can keep 2-3 pieces of the
fruit.

Take 2-3 kg of castor leaves and add 3 litres

of water. Boil for half an hour and filter the
extract. Take 2-3 kg of sorghum seeds and
add it to the above extract. Boil it again for
half an hour. Take these seeds in a vessel and
keep it in the corner of the storage rooms.
Rats feed on these and die.

CONTROL OF BIRDS AND MICROORGANISMS

The environmental conditions that favours the

development of fungi are,

Bird control

bout 0.85% of loss of grains at storage

level is caused by birds. Birds cause
appreciable damage in fields and also in
stores. They are also responsible for spoilage,
contamination with excreta, feathers and dead
bodies in fields and godowns. They create a great
nuisance and unhygienic condition in warehouses.
Godowns can be made bird proof by equipping
windows, ventilators and other entries with wire
meshes. Strips of nylon or polythene can also be
used for scaring birds near the godowns. Remove
the nests of the house sparrow or pigeon found
near the storage area.

Moisture content above 12%. A temperature of

30 32oC. The degree to which the grain/seed has
been previously infected with fungi. The amount
of foreign matter such as dirt, dust, chaff etc.,
present in the stored product. Oxygen content in
the storage godown and the condition of the seed
stored.
Control measures
Moisture content of the seed/grain should be
reduced to a safe level. By doing this the chances
of fungal growth is minimized. The safe level of
moisture content for wheat and rice are 12% and
13% respectively. Reduction of moisture content
can be done either by sun drying or with the help
of grain dryers. Reduction of temperature to a
range of 23oC 30oC helps in the reduction of
storage fungal growth.

Attack by microorganisms and their control

Various micro organisms affect stored grains
such as fungi, bacteria, yeast, actinomycetes and
protozoa. Out of all these microorganisms fungi
is responsible for maximum damage / spoilage
of seeds in storage. When a fungus is present, it
causes off odour, kernel discolouration, loss of
nutritive value and loss in viability. Fungi may
also produce certain poisonous substances which
are harmful and may be fatal to human beings,
animals, poultry etc.

The best ways to avoid damage from

microorganisms during storage are, to clean the
food grains / seeds before storage. The seeds
and food grains should be dried to an optimum
level before storage. The food grains should be
placed in receptacles where moisture increase
is minimum during rainy season. The godowns
should also beaurated on sunny days.

SEED STORAGE STRUCTURES

eed storage is an important process in

maintaining the viability and vigour of
the seeds during storage period. Different
storage structures are available based on the
duration of the seed storage. Storage structures
can be classified into indigenous structures and
modern structures.

Indigenous methods/structures
1. Gourd casing
Traditional method of seed storage is use of
outer casing of gourd vegetables. These are used
to store the seeds of vegetable crops. In some
cases, gourd shaped vessels made of clay or
gourd shaped baskets are also used for storage.
If it is a basket, then it should be tightly plastered
with mud.
2. Kuthir
Farmers store the cereals in tall mud pots or bins,
which is known as kuthir in Tamil. These are
made up of clay soil and plant fibres. Sometimes
husks of cereal crops can also be mixed with clay
to make the storage structure stronger. The mud
pot of about 1 - 3m height has a narrow opening
at the top and covered with a tight lid. Seeds and
grains can be stored in it can be taken out only
through the top opening.

3. Kodambae
These structures are built close to the houses of
the farmers. Big stones are placed in a concentric
manner at the base of the floor. Wooden sticks
are placed over the stones to form a platform
over the stones. The structure is round in shape.
Side walls of about 1 metre height are built using
mud (red soil) or cement and bricks. On the top
of the cylindrical structure a conical shaped roof
is built using bamboo sticks or coconut fronds. In
the roof an opening is made with a wooden board
for a person to enter and collect the seeds as and
when needed. Farmers use ladders to climb over
the roof and to collect the seeds. The conical tip
of the roof is covered with an inverted pot in
order to avoid the seepage of rain water inside
the storage structure. Capacity of such kodambae
is 1000 kgs.
10

4. Thombarai
This type of storage structure is built using Acacia
(thorn tree) wood and is rectangular in shape.
It is built at a height of 1 m from the ground
level with four supporting wooden pillars at the
bottom. The top of the structure has a small door
with an opening for collecting and for pouring
the seeds. After filling the grains, straw is spread
over the top and sealed with mud. This structure
is useful for preventing the seeds from storage
pests and also from rodents. Capacity of such
storage container is 1000 kgs.
5. Earthen pots
Earthen pots made of clay to a convenient size are
used from olden days for storage purpose. Walls
of the pots are coated with clay and the mouth
of the pot is closed with stiff cow dung paste
reinforced with cloth. Pots are arranged vertically
one over the other depending upon the size of the
pot. Capacity of the pot varies according to the
size of the pots.

straw provided at the bottom. This is done in

order to prevent the absorbance of moisture from
the ground. After loading the seeds the structure
has to be covered with straw in such a way to
form a conical roof. It is easily prone to damage
by rodents, hence the side wall can be built with
the help of brick/cement concrete. Capacity of
such storage container is 3 20 metric tonnes.

6. Mara thombai

9. Gunny bags

This type of wooden structure is used to protect

the seeds / grains from insects, moisture, mold
growth and from the attack of birds and rodents.
The wall of rectangular thombai is made using
wooden boards to a height of 1.5 2 m and is
built 80 cms above the ground level and supported
with four wooden poles. The whole unit is split
into 4 equal parts and each unit is used as a
drawer for storage purpose. Tight wooden board
is placed at the top as a roofing material. Small
outlet provided at the base is used for the removal
of seeds from the storage structure. Capacity of
such storage container is 1000 kgs.

Gunny bags are used for storing seeds which is

durable and inexpensive. They are easy to handle
and it allows the circulation of air that keep the
seeds cool. They can be stacked in the household
area itself. No special storage area is required for
storing in gunny bags. Well before storage, gunny
bags should be treated with 10% neem kernel
solution. Soak the gunny bags in neem kernel
extract for 15 minutes and shade dry before use.
New gunny bags should be soaked for 30 minutes.
Dried bags are used for storing the seeds. Seeds
can be protected from pest attack up to 4 months.
After 4 months, seeds are to be dried and the bags
are to be treated with neem kernel extract again.
Capacity of the bag varies from 10 75 kgs.

7. Kalangiyam
Rectangular brick walls are constructed with the
strong concrete base inside the farmers house.
The walls are smoothly plastered to avoid the
entry of insects and their larvae. The wooden lid
at the top is used for the loading and unloading of
the storage materials. Dimensions and capacity
of the structure may vary depending upon the
farmers requirement.

Preparation of neem kernel extract

Take 3- 5 kg of neem kernels or 10 kg of neem
cake and gently pound them into powder and
place it in an earthen pot. Add 10 litres of water
and tie the mouth of the pot securely with a cloth.
After three days, filter the solution to obtain
the 67 litres of extract. Dilute 1 litre of extract
with 9 litres of water to get a 10% neem kernel
solution.

8. Puri
It is constructed with the help of paddy straw over
a hard surface of the ground after a layer of loose
11

4. Pucca kothi

Modern Storage Structures

1. Pusa bin
It is built with the help of unburnt brick. A
polyethylene sheet is placed in between two
brick walls to make it air tight. The inlet is at the
top for loading and for unloading and the outlet is
at the bottom of the bin. Bins are constructed by
few layers of burnt bricks plastered with cement
at the bottom to avoid rodent damage.
2.

It is an indoor structure built with the help of

burnt bricks and cement. It is constructed on an
elevated floor and the walls should be plastered
after embedding the polythene sheet to make it
airtight. Inlet is at the top and the outlet is at the
bottom of the structure. The inner layer should
be reinforced with iron bars for strengthening
the walls. This structure is used to maintain
the moisture level of the stored product at the
same level in which it is stored. Capacity varies
according to the space available in rural houses.
5. Reinforced cement concrete ring bin
It is built with the help of cement concrete rings
easily available in all areas. The rings are placed
one over the other on the cement concrete roof
with steel inlet opening on the roof. An outlet is
provided either at the base or at the lower ring
itself. The rings are joined together with the help
of cement mortar. Capacity varies according to
the diameter of each ring and number of rings
used in each bin.

Storage in metal drums

Farmers use metal drums for storing sorghum,

maize, millets and groundnuts. The capacity of
the drum is 600 kgs and it should be clean and dry
before storage. Seeds are filled in the drum using
funnel and closed tightly with a cap. Seeds can
be protected from rodent damage and the drums
can be easily fumigated to protect the seeds from
pest attack. Capacity of such storage container
is 600 kgs.

6. Gharelu thekka
The storage capacity of this structure ranges
from 1 - 3 metric tonnes. The structure consists
of metal base with fabricated 22 gauge sheets,
rubberized cloth container and bamboo posts for
lateral support. The height of the structure is 2 m.
The structure is moisture proof and air tight and
is suitable for periodical fumigation.

3. Storage in metal bins

For small scale storage, metal bins can be used.
Bins are placed on the raised platform or cement
base to protect the seepage of water from outer
floor to inside the bin. Bins are light weight and
easy to handle. Capacity of such storage container
is 1000 kgs.
12

REFERENCES
Uma Ahuja, et al., 2010. Traditional Paddy Storage, Asian Agri History, Volume 14, No.3, 2010. pp.
245-260.
Karthikeyan. C., et al., 2009. Indigenous Storage Structures, Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge,
Volume 8(2), April 2009, pp. 225-229.
Srimathi. P., et al., 2008. Approaches for Commercial Seed Production, The Department of Seed
Science and Technology, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore. pp. 150.
Subashini Sridhar and Vijayalakshmi, K., 2006. Neem : A Users Guide, Centre for Indian Knowledge
Systems, Chennai. pp. 50.
Vijayalakshmi, K., (Eds.) 2006. IFOAM training Manual for Seed Saving, compiled by Centre for
Indian Knowledge Systems, Chenani. pp. 122.
Manual on Grain Storage at Farm Level, 2002. Storage & Research Division, Department of Food &
Public Distribution, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution, Government of India,
New Delhi, pp. 62.
Bhaskaran. M., et al, 2002. Principles of Seed Production and Quality Control, Department of Seed
Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. pp. 365.
Birewar. B. R., et al., 1982. Farm Level Modern Storage Structure, Indian Grain Storage Institute,
Hapur- 245 101. pp. 63.
Code of Practices for Safe Storage of Food Grains- Storage Structures. Government of India, Ministry
of Food, Indian Grain Storage Institute, Hapur- 245 101. pp. 44.
Code of Practices for Safe Storage of Pulses, Leaflet. Government of India, Ministry of Food, Indian
Grain Storage Institute, Hapur- 245 101.
Code of Practices for Safe Storage of Wheat, Leaflet. Government of India, Ministry of Food, Indian
Grain Storage Institute, Hapur- 245 101.
Code of Practices for Rodent Control, Leaflet. Government of India, Ministry of Food, Indian Grain
Storage Institute, Hapur- 245 101.
Mohan. S., Dhaniya Saemipil Aerpadum Prachinaigalum Theervugalum, Department of Entomology,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. pp. 34.
Proper Storage of Food Grains Need for the hour. Save Grain Campaign, Department of Food & Civil
Supplies, Ministry of Food & Consumer Affairs, Government of India, Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad500 030. pp.15.
Study material of Seed Technology Course, Acharya N. G. Ranga University, Andhra Pradesh.
Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi.
Vijayalakshmi, K., Subhashini Sridhar and Shivani Koul., 1998. Plants in Pest Control Custard
Apple, Vitex, Sweet Flag and Poison Nut, Centre for Indian Knowledge systems, Chennai. pp. 34.
13

APPENDIX I STORAGE PESTS

1. Lesser grain borer/ Hooded grain borer

- Rhizopertha dominica

dult insect is shiny, dark brown or black

in colour. It has strong jaws which can
cut even the wood pieces. It is about
2.5 to 3 mm in length. Larva crawls around the
grains and eat the flour left by the boring of adult
beetles. Adults bore holes in the grains. Both
adult and larvae are voracious feeders and causes
serious damage.

3. Angoumois grain moth / Paddy moth Sitotroga cerealella

2. Saw-toothed grain beetle - Oryzaephilus

surinamensis

These pests inflict severe damage to unhusked

paddy. It attacks all grains in storage and
ripening grains of paddy, sorghum and ragi in
the field. Adult insect is light, yellow-brown in
colour. The forewings are pale yellow in colour
and hind wings have grey pointed ends with
fringes of hairs. The body measures 8-10 mm in
length. Each female lays 50-100 eggs. It is laid
on the surface of the grains in the field and also
in storage. After few days the larvae emerge out
and enter into the pupation stage. Larva is an
internal borer of the whole grain, feeding on the
starchy part. Adults emerge out in 4 7 days.
Adults have a short life span

Adult is a flattened beetle with a row of saw like

sharp teeth on each side of the prothorax. Hence
it is named as saw toothed grain beetle. It is dark
brown in colour and 3.5 mm in length. Each
female lays about 300 eggs in the crevices of the
grain. Eggs are small, slender, cylindrical and
white in colour. After 5 days, larvae emerge out.
Larvae make cocoons of a gelatinous substance
to which the food particles get adhered.

4. Rice weevil - Sitophilus oryzae

Adult is reddish-brown or black in colour. Each
female lays about 150-300 eggs inside the grain
kernel. Female makes a cavity on the grain and
lays translucent eggs under the seed coat. The

14

hole is plugged with gelatinous secretion. From

the eggs, tiny grubs emerge out. They are about
4 mm in length. They are white in colour and
curved in appearance. The larval stage lasts for
about 3 - 4 weeks. They actively feed inside
the grains and are responsible for most of the
damage. Grains with a moisture content of
less than 10% are generally not attacked. The
optimum temperature and relative humidity are
27C - 31C and 70% respectively.
The larvae generally feed the endosperm which
reduces the weight and the food value. The
damaged grains are in turn attacked by bacteria,
fungi and other insects. Moreover, the larva also
produces large quantities of powdery excreta.
This makes the grains dusty and it also creates
unpleasant odour. Adults produce extra heat by
their body cavities which increase heat in the bins
and bags and this hastens breeding.
5. Drug store beetle - Stegobium paniceum
Adult is small, flat and reddish brown in colour.
The entire body is covered with soft hairs. The
body measures about 3 mm in length. Each
female lays about 100 eggs on any dry food
substance. After 8 days, the larvae emerge out.
Larvae are very active and crawl in search of
food. It is a general feeder attacking many kinds
of stored grains. It tunnels into stored products
like turmeric, ginger, coriander and dry vegetable
matter. Both adult and larva are destructive.
6. Red flour beetle - Tribolium castaneum
Adult is small, flat and reddish brown in colour.
The body measures about 3-4 mm in length.
Each female lays about 400 - 500 eggs on dust
and flour. It feeds and breeds on the same grain.
Presence of unpleasant smell in the storage place
is an indication of the infestation of this beetle.

larva also leads to unhygienic conditions in

warehouses and godowns).
8. Pulse beetle - Callosobruchus chinensis
Adult beetle is small, reddish brown to black
in colour. The body is abruptly round in shape.
Each female lays wide elongated eggs. The
larvae emerge out are yellowish white in colour.
Optimum temperature required is 32C and
relative humidity is about 90% for the completion
of the life cycle. It mainly attacks the pulses such
as stored cowpea, grams, soya bean, channa,
mung, toor etc. Hence it is named as pulse
beetle. It also infests the redgram pods at the
field level.
Methods for storage
Germination and health of the seeds should be
checked regularly. Seeds to be stored should be
dried well to a safe moisture level before storage.
Storing seeds in gunny bags is advisable, since
it is durable and inexpensive. Other than gunny
bags any dry, airtight containers like metal
drums/bins, aluminium boxes can also be used
for storing. The seed bags should not be placed
on the floor directly. The storage bags can be
made damp proof by providing bamboo poles or
bamboo mats or wooden crates. Stack the gunny
bags on platforms raised off the floor. If no wood
or bricks are available to make a platform, the
ground can be covered with plastic sheets. The
raised platform is better than the plastic because it
also allows air to flow under the gunny bag.Stack
the gunny bags in a neat manner. Leave space
between the gunny bags so that air can move
freely between the sacks. The seed sacks should
be placed one above the other and a maximum of

7. Khapra beetle - Trogoderma granarium

Adult beetle is brown or black in colour. The
body measures about 4 - 6 mm in length. Adult
female lays about 80 - 120 eggs. After few days,
the larvae emerge out. Damage is done mostly
by the larva which reduces the grain quality.
Excessive moulting of this particular species
creates less market appeal due to insanitation
caused by skins and hairs. (Overcrowding of
15

6-7 sacks can be stacked in a vertical row. The

seed sacks arranged on wooden blocks should be
kept away from the side walls in order to protect
the moisture being absorbed from the walls.

large earthen pots or in cement storage structures

covered with tight lids. Over the seed or grain,
3 cm of sieved sand should be applied and covered
tightly with lid. This will prevent the entry and
reproduction of bruchids in pulses. Groundnut
pods should be dried up to 7-8% moisture content
before storage. Poor, damaged, shriveled, fungus
infected pods should be removed and pods
should be stored in gunny bags. Polythene or
polypropylene bags should be avoided because
it restricts the air movement and initiates fungal
growth. Rice seeds harvested during September
October months, can be sundried again during
January - February to reduce the moisture content
and to prevent insect damage. Seeds should be
stored in an air tight container plastered with
cow dung paste. This method of storage is called
kottai in southern Tamil Nadu. Redgram seeds
can be mixed with cow dung slurry and dried in
shade before storage.

The quality of the seeds should be checked once

a month. Based on the result of the seed analysis,
excess moisture should be removed by drying
under the sun, which will prevent the incidence
of pest and disease causing germs. To enhance
the air circulation the seed bag stacks should
be rearranged frequently in such a way to keep
the lower bags in the top and vice-versa. The
viability of seeds can be enhanced when stored
in polyethylene bags instead of gunny bags. Each
seed bag should have a proper label and necessary
records should be maintained.
Freshly threshed pulse grains are to be dried for
3-5 days, cooled and stored in metal or plastic bins,

16

APPENDIX II
COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS
Sl. No.

English Name

Scientific Name

1.

Blackgram

Vigna mungo

2.

Castor

Ricinus communis

3.

Channa

Cicer arietinum

4.

Citrus

Citrus limon

5.

Common lantana

Lantana camera

6.

Cotton

Gossypium spp.

7.

Cowpea

Vigna unguiculata

8.

Custard apple

Annona reticulata

9.

Date palm

Phoenix dactylifera

10.

Ginger

Zingiber officinale

11.

Greengram/ Mung dhal

Vigna radiata

12.

Groundnut

Arachis hypogea

13.

Horse shoe Vitex

Vitex negundo

14.

Jack

Artocarpus heterophllus

15.

Mahua

Madhuca latifolia

16.

Maize

Zea mays

17.

Mango

Mangifera indica

18.

Mustard

Brassica juncea

19.

Neem

Azadirachta indica

20.

Paddy

Oryza sativa

21.

Papaya

Carica papaya

22.

Pungam

Millettia pinnata

23.

Redgram/Toor dhal

Cajanus cajan

24.

Sorghum

Sorghum vulgare

25.

Soyabean

Glycinia max

26.

Sweet flag

Acorus calamus

27.

Thorn tree

Acacia

28.

Thumbai

Leucas aspera

29.

Wheat

Triticum aestivum

30.

Wild tulsi

Ocimum tenuiflorum
17