Anti-lock braking and electro-mechanical

brakes
INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction

Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or stop

motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The original name
was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over the years the name changed to "electromagnetic
brakes", referring to their actuation method. Since becoming popular in the mid-20th century
especially in trains and trolleys (Trams, not Shopping cart), the variety of applications and brake
designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.

Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use electromagnetic force but
electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy current brakes use magnetic force
directly.

Contents
1 Applications
2 Types
2.1 Single face brake
2.2 Power off brake
2.3 Particle brake
2.4 Hysteresis power brake
2.5 Multiple disk brake
3 See also
4 References

Applications
In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking component.
Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking element is pressed by
magnetic force to the rail. They are distinguished from mechanical track brakes, where the
braking element is mechanically pressed on the rail.
Electric motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic brakes.
Recent design innovations have led to the application of electromagnetic brakes to aircraft
applications. In this application, a combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin
the tires up to speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and then as a generator
to provide regenerative braking.

Types
Single face brake

A-3 Electromagentic brake

For more and detailed information, please see Friction-plate electromagnetic couplings
A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the input and output members
of the clutch. Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power
applied brake applications.

Power off brake

Electromagnetic Power Off Brake Spring Set

Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either accidentally lost or
intentionally disconnected. In the past, some companies have referred to these as "fail safe"
brakes. These brakes are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications include
robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo motor brakes. Brakes are available in
multiple voltages and can have either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks
can also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake diameter. There are 2 main
types of holding brakes. The first is spring applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet
brakes.

Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring pushes against a pressure
plate, squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate. This
frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.
Permanent magnet type A permanent magnet holding brake looks very similar to a standard
power applied electromagnetic brake. Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses
permanent magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged, the permanent
magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can in turn attract the armature to the brake
housing. To disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil which sets up an alternate magnetic
field that cancels out the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets.
Both power off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power is applied to them. They are
typically required to hold or to stop alone in the event of a loss of power or when power is not
available in a machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque for their size,
but also require a constant current control to offset the permanent magnetic field. Spring applied
brakes do not require a constant current control, they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger in
diameter or would need stacked friction disks to increase the torque.

Particle brake

Magnetic Particle Brake

Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-mechanical brakes because
of the wide operating torque range available. Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage
is almost linear; however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be controlled very accurately
(within the operating RPM range of the unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension
control applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension control. Because of their
fast response, they can also be used in high cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers,
sorting machines and labeling equipment.
Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the powder cavity. When electricity
is applied to the coil, the resulting magnetic flux tries to bind the particles together, almost like a
magnetic particle slush. As the electric current is increased, the binding of the particles becomes
stronger. The brake rotor passes through these bound particles. The output of the housing is
rigidly attached to some portion of the machine. As the particles start to bind together, a resistant
force is created on the rotor, slowing, and eventually stopping the output shaft.

When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn with the shaft. Since
magnetic particle powder is in the cavity, all magnetic particle units have some type of minimum
drag associated with them.

Hysteresis power brake

Electomagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake

Electrical hysteresis units have an extremely wide torque range. Since these units can be
controlled remotely, they are ideal for test stand applications where varying torque is required.
Since drag torque is minimal, these units offer the widest available torque range of any of the
hysteresis products. Most applications involving powered hysteresis units are in test stand
requirements.
When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux. That flux is then
transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field. The hysteresis disk is attached to the
brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual
stoppage of the output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the hysteresis disk is free to turn, and no relative
force is transmitted between either member. Therefore, the only torque seen between the input
and the output is bearing drag.

Multiple disk brake

Electromagnetic Multiple Disk Brake

Multiple disk brakes are used to deliver extremely high torque within a small space. These
brakes can be used either wet or dry, which makes them ideal to run in multi-speed gear box
applications, machine tool applications, or in off road equipment.
Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but transmit torque mechanically.
When electricity is applied to the coil of an electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the
armature to the face of the brake. As it does so, it squeezes the inner and outer friction disks
together. The hub is normally mounted on the shaft that is rotating. The brake housing is
mounted solidly to the machine frame. As the disks are squeezed, torque is transmitted from the
hub into the machine frame, stopping and holding the shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to turn with the shaft. Springs
keep the friction disk and armature away from each other. There is no contact between braking
surfaces and minimal drag.

Electromagnet

A simple electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated wire wrapped around an iron core.The
strength of magnetic field generated is proportional to the amount of current

Magnetic field produced by a solenoid (coil of wire). This drawing shows a cross section through
the center of the coil. The crosses are wires in which current is moving into the page; the dots are
wires in which current is moving up out of the page.
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric
current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets usually
consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field. The wire
turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more
powerful magnet.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can
be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike

a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of

electrical energy to maintain a magnetic field.
Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors,
generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic
separation equipment. Electomagnets are also employed in industry for picking up and moving
heavy iron objects such as scrap iron and steel.[2]

Contents
electromagnets
Physics
Ampere's law
Magnetic core
Magnetic circuit the constant B field approximation
Magnetic field created by a current
Force exerted by magnetic field
Closed magnetic circuit
Force between electromagnets

Physics

The magnetic field lines of a current-carrying loop of wire pass through the center of the loop,
concentrating the field there

Current (I) through a wire produces a magnetic field (B). The field is oriented according to the
right-hand rule.
An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire, due to Ampere's
law (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is
wound into a coil with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns
of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there A coil forming
the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid.
The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the righthand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current
flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in
the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is
defined to be the north pole.
Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "magnetic core" of a soft ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic) material, such as iron, is placed inside the coil. A core can increase the magnetic
field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic
permeability of the material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet.
However, not all electromagnets use cores, and the very strongest electromagnets, such as
superconducting and the very high current electromagnets which have important uses, cannot use
them due to saturation.
Ampere's law
For definitions of the variables below, see box at end of article.
The magnetic field of electromagnets in the general case is given by Ampere's Law:

which says that the integral of the magnetizing field H around any closed loop of the field is
equal to the sum of the current flowing through the loop. Another equation used, that gives the
magnetic field due to each small segment of current, is the BiotSavart law. Computing the
magnetic field and force exerted by ferromagnetic materials is difficult for two reasons. First,
because the strength of the field varies from point to point in a complicated way, particularly
outside the core and in air gaps, where fringing fields and leakage flux must be considered.
Second, because the magnetic field B and force are nonlinear functions of the current, depending
on the nonlinear relation between B and H for the particular core material used. For precise
calculations, computer programs that can produce a model of the magnetic field using the finite
element method are employed.
Magnetic core
The material of a magnetic core (often made of iron or steel) is composed of small regions called
magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets (see ferromagnetism). Before the current in the
electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny
magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large scale magnetic field. When a
current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron,
and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic
fields add to the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around
the magnet. The effect of the core is to concentrate the field, and the magnetic field passes
through the core more easily than it would pass through air.
The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the stronger
the magnetic field is. Finally all the domains are lined up, and further increases in current only
cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon is called saturation.
When the current in the coil is turned off, in the magnetically soft materials that are nearly
always used as cores, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a random state and the
field disappears. However some of the alignment persists, because the domains have difficulty
turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This
phenomenon is called hysteresis and the remaining magnetic field is called remanent magnetism.
The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by degaussing. In alternating current
electromagnets, such as are used in motors, the core's magnetisation is constantly reversed, and
the remanence contributes to the motor's losses.
Magnetic circuit the constant B field approximation

Magnetic field (green) of a typical electromagnet, with the iron core C forming a closed loop
with two air gaps G in it.
B magnetic field in the core
BF "fringing fields". In the gaps G the magnetic field lines "bulge" out, so the field strength is
less than in the core: BF < B
BL leakage flux; magnetic field lines which don't follow complete magnetic circuit
L average length of the magnetic circuit used in eq. 1 below. It is the sum of the length Lcore in
the iron core pieces and the length Lgap in the air gaps G.
Both the leakage flux and the fringing fields get larger as the gaps are increased, reducing the
force exerted by the magnet.
In many practical applications of electromagnets, such as motors, generators, transformers,
lifting magnets, and loudspeakers, the iron core is in the form of a loop or magnetic circuit,
possibly broken by a few narrow air gaps. This is because the magnetic field lines are in the form
of closed loops. Iron presents much less "resistance" (reluctance) to the magnetic field than air,
so a stronger field can be obtained if most of the magnetic field's path is within the core.[2]
Since most of the magnetic field is confined within the outlines of the core loop, this allows a
simplification of the mathematical analysis. See the drawing at right. A common simplifying
assumption satisfied by many electromagnets, which will be used in this section, is that the
magnetic field strength B is constant around the magnetic circuit and zero outside it. Most of the
magnetic field will be concentrated in the core material (C). Within the core the magnetic field
(B) will be approximately uniform across any cross section, so if in addition the core has roughly
constant area throughout its length, the field in the core will be constant This just leaves the air

gaps (G), if any, between core sections. In the gaps the magnetic field lines are no longer
confined by the core, so they 'bulge' out beyond the outlines of the core before curving back to
enter the next piece of core material, reducing the field strength in the gap. The bulges (BF) are
called fringing fields.[2] However, as long as the length of the gap is smaller than the cross section
dimensions of the core, the field in the gap will be approximately the same as in the core. In
addition, some of the magnetic field lines (BL) will take 'short cuts' and not pass through the
entire core circuit, and thus will not contribute to the force exerted by the magnet. This also
includes field lines that encircle the wire windings but do not enter the core. This is called
leakage flux. Therefore the equations in this section are valid for electromagnets for which:
1. the magnetic circuit is a single loop of core material, possibly broken by a few air gaps
2. the core has roughly the same cross sectional area throughout its length.
3. any air gaps between sections of core material are not large compared with the cross
sectional dimensions of the core.
4. there is negligible leakage flux
The main nonlinear feature of ferromagnetic materials is that the B field saturates at a certain
value,[2] which is around 1.6 to 2 teslas (T) for most high permeability core steels. The B field
increases quickly with increasing current up to that value, but above that value the field levels off
and becomes almost constant, regardless of how much current is sent through the windings So
the maximum strength of the magnetic field possible from an iron core electromagnet is limited
to around 1.6 to 2 T
Magnetic field created by a current
The magnetic field created by an electromagnet is proportional to both the number of turns in the
winding, N, and the current in the wire, I, hence this product, NI, in ampere-turns, is given the
name magnetomotive force. For an electromagnet with a single magnetic circuit, of which length
Lcore of the magnetic field path is in the core material and length Lgap is in air gaps, Ampere's Law
reduces to:[17][2][18]

where
is the magnetic permeability of the core material at the particular B field
used.
is the permeability of free space (or air); note that

in this

definition is amperes.
This is a nonlinear equation, because the permeability of the core, , varies with the magnetic
field B. For an exact solution, the value of at the B value used must be obtained from the core

material hysteresis curve.[2] If B is unknown, the equation must be solved by numerical methods.
However, if the magnetomotive force is well above saturation, so the core material is in
saturation, the magnetic field will be approximately the saturation value Bsat for the material, and
won't vary much with changes in NI. For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap) most core
materials saturate at a magnetomotive force of roughly 800 ampere-turns per meter of flux path.
For most core materials,
. So in equation (1) above, the second
term dominates. Therefore, in magnetic circuits with an air gap, the strength of the magnetic field
B depends strongly on the length of the air gap, and the length of the flux path in the core doesn't
matter much.
Force exerted by magnetic field
The force exerted by an electromagnet on a section of core material is:

The 1.6 T limit on the field[14][16] mentioned above sets a limit on the maximum force per unit
core area, or pressure, an iron-core electromagnet can exert; roughly:

In more intuitive units it's useful to remember that at 1T the magnetic pressure is approximately
4 atmospheres, or kg/cm2.
Given a core geometry, the B field needed for a given force can be calculated from (2); if it
comes out to much more than 1.6 T, a larger core must be used.
Closed magnetic circuit

Cross section of lifting electromagnet like that in above photo, showing cylindrical construction.
The windings (C) are flat copper strips to withstand the Lorentz force of the magnetic field. The
core is formed by the thick iron housing (D) that wraps around the windings.
For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap), such as would be found in an electromagnet lifting a
piece of iron bridged across its poles, equation (1) becomes:

Substituting into (2), the force is:

It can be seen that to maximize the force, a core with a short flux path L and a wide cross
sectional area A is preferred (this also applies to magnets with an air gap). To achieve this, in
applications like lifting magnets (see photo above) and loudspeakers a flat cylindrical design is
often used. The winding is wrapped around a short wide cylindrical core that forms one pole, and
a thick metal housing that wraps around the outside of the windings forms the other part of the
magnetic circuit, bringing the magnetic field to the front to form the other pole.
Force between electromagnets
The above methods are applicable to electromagnets with a magnetic circuit, and do not apply
when a large part of the magnetic field path is outside the core. An example would be a magnet
with a straight cylindrical core like the one shown at the top of this article. For electromagnets
(or permanent magnets) with well defined 'poles' where the field lines emerge from the core, the
force between two electromagnets can be found using the 'Gilbert model' which assumes the
magnetic field is produced by fictitious 'magnetic charges' on the surface of the poles, with pole
strength m and units of Ampere-turn meter. Magnetic pole strength of electromagnets can be
found from:

The force between two poles is:

This model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core, and thus gives incorrect results
if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.
.
Exploding electromagnets
The factor limiting the strength of electromagnets is the inability to dissipate the enormous waste
heat, so more powerful fields, up to 100 T,[19] have been obtained from resistive magnets by
sending brief pulses of current through them. The most powerful manmade magnetic fields have
been created by using explosives to compress the magnetic field inside an electromagnet as it is

pulsed. The implosion compresses the magnetic field to values of around 1000 T[20] for a few
microseconds. While this method may seem very destructive there are methods to control the
blast so that neither the experiment nor the magnetic structure are harmed, by redirecting the
brunt of the force radially outwards. These devices are known as destructive pulsed
electromagnets.[22] They are used in physics and materials science research to study the properties
of materials at high magnetic fields.
Definition of terms
square meter
tesla
newton
ampere per meter
ampere
meter
meter
meter
ampere meter
newton per square ampere
newton per square ampere
meter

cross sectional area of core

Magnetic field (Magnetic flux density)
Force exerted by magnetic field
Magnetizing field
Current in the winding wire
Total length of the magnetic field path
Length of the magnetic field path in the core material
Length of the magnetic field path in air gaps
Pole strength of the electromagnet
Permeability of the electromagnet core material
Permeability of free space (or air) = 4(107)
Relative permeability of the electromagnet core material
Number of turns of wire on the electromagnet
Distance between the poles of two electromagnets

Anti-lock braking system

ABS brakes on a BMW motorcycle.

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a
motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while
braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled
skidding. It is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence

braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It
does this at a much faster rate and with better control than a driver could manage.
ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and
slippery surfaces; however, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces, ABS can significantly
increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.
Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have been improved
considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically
control the front-to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and
implementation, is known as electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD), traction control system,
emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).
Contents

1 History
o 1.1 Early systems
o 1.2 Modern systems

2 Operation

3 Components

4 Use

5 Brake types

6 Effectiveness

7 Regulations

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

History
Early systems

ABS was first developed for aircraft use in 1929 by the French automobile and aircraft pioneer
Gabriel Voisin, as threshold braking on airplanes. These systems use a flywheel and valve
attached to a hydraulic line that feeds the brake cylinders. The flywheel is attached to a drum that
runs at the same speed as the wheel. In normal braking, the drum and flywheel should spin at the
same speed. However, when a wheel slows down, then the drum would do the same, leaving the
flywheel spinning at a faster rate. This causes the valve to open, allowing a small amount of
brake fluid to bypass the master cylinder into a local reservoir, lowering the pressure on the
cylinder and releasing the brakes. The use of the drum and flywheel meant the valve only opened
when the wheel was turning. In testing, a 30% improvement in braking performance was noted,
because the pilots immediately applied full brakes instead of slowly increasing pressure in order
to find the skid point. An additional benefit was the elimination of burned or burst tires.
By the early 1950s, the Dunlop Maxaret anti-skid system was in widespread aviation use in the
UK, with aircraft such as the Avro Vulcan and Handley Page Victor, Vickers Viscount, Vickers
Valiant, English Electric Lightning, de Havilland Comet 2c, de Havilland Sea Vixen, and later
aircraft, such as the Vickers VC10, Hawker Siddeley Trident, Hawker Siddeley 125, Hawker
Siddeley HS 748 and derived British Aerospace ATP, and BAC One-Eleven being fitted with
Maxaret as standard. Maxaret, while reducing braking distances by up to 30% in icy or wet
conditions, also increased tyre life, and had the additional advantage of allowing take-offs and
landings in conditions that would preclude flying at all in non-Maxaret equipped aircraft.
In 1958, a Royal Enfield Super Meteor motorcycle was used by the Road Research Laboratory to
test the Maxaret anti-lock brake. The experiments demonstrated that anti-lock brakes can be of
great value to motorcycles, for which skidding is involved in a high proportion of accidents.
Stopping distances were reduced in most of the tests compared with locked wheel braking,
particularly on slippery surfaces, in which the improvement could be as much as 30 percent.
Enfield's technical director at the time, Tony Wilson-Jones, saw little future in the system,
however, and it was not put into production by the company.
A fully mechanical system saw limited automobile use in the 1960s in the Ferguson P99 racing
car, the Jensen FF, and the experimental all wheel drive Ford Zodiac, but saw no further use; the
system proved expensive and unreliable.
The first fully electronic anti lock system was developed in the late 60s for the Concorde aircraft.
Modern systems
Chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a computerized, three-channel, foursensor all-wheel ABS called "Sure Brake" for its 1971 Imperial.It was available for several years
thereafter, functioned as intended, and proved reliable. In 1970, Ford added an antilock braking
system called "Sure-track" to the rear wheels of Lincoln Continentals as an option; it became

standard in 1971. In 1971, General Motors introduced the "Trackmaster" rear-wheel only ABS as
an option on their rear-wheel drive Cadillac models and the Oldsmobile Toronado. In the same
year, Nissan offered an EAL (Electro Anti-lock System) as an option on the Nissan President,
which became Japan's first electronic ABS.
1971: Electronically controlled anti-skid brakes on Toyota Crown In 1972, four wheel drive
Triumph 2500 Estates were fitted with Mullard electronic systems as standard. Such cars were
very rare however and very few survive today.
In 1985 the Ford Scorpio was introduced to European market with a Teves electronic system
throughout the range as standard. For this the model was awarded the coveted European Car of
the Year Award in 1986, with very favourable praise from motoring journalists. After this success
Ford began research into Anti-Lock systems for the rest of their range, which encouraged other
manufacturers to follow suit.
In 1988, BMW introduced the first motorcycle with an electronic-hydraulic ABS: the BMW
K100. Honda followed suit in 1992 with the launch of its first motorcycle ABS on the ST1100
Pan European. In 2007, Suzuki launched its GSF1200SA (Bandit) with an ABS. In 2005, HarleyDavidson began offering an ABS option on police bikes.
Operation
The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake).
Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at
least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the
rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others,
a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic
pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the
wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than
the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied,
slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver
via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times
per second. Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to
lock even during panic braking in extreme conditions.
The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical
threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn
slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all roadgoing
vehicles.

If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the
vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified.
Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of
hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on
most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems,
which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics
over the years.[19]
Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a
minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel
angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic
sensor detects that the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel
sensor reports, the ESC software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with
the most sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering
wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell
the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside,
and by how much.
ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration
of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the
situation and take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this
can also control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.
The speed sensors of ABS are sometimes used in indirect tire pressure monitoring system
(TPMS), which can detect under-inflation of tire(s) by difference in rotational speed of wheels.
Components
There are four main components of ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller.
Speed sensors
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These
sensors use a magnet and a coil of wire to generate a signal. The rotation of the wheel or
differential induces a magnetic field around the sensor. The fluctuations of this magnetic
field generate a voltage in the sensor. Since the voltage induced in the sensor is a result of
the rotating wheel, this sensor can become inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower rotation
of the wheel can cause inaccurate fluctuations in the magnetic field and thus cause
inaccurate readings to the controller.
Valves

There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems,
the valve has three positions:

In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right
through to the brake.

In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder.
This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal
harder.

In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a valve is
clogged it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the
system from modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.
Pump
The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the
valves have released it. A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection
of wheel slip. After a valve release the pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used
to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking system. The controller will
modulate the pumps status in order to provide the desired amount of pressure and reduce
slipping.
Controller
The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each
individual wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the
controller, the controller will then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS
modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off.
Use
There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler
systems works as follows:
1. The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in
the wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel locks up, it will experience a
rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any
car could. It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal
conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second.

2. The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the
pressure to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it
sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually
significantly change speed. The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the
car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock
up. This gives the system maximum braking power.
3. This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low
traction surface, allowing to steer even in the most emergency braking conditions.
4. When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes
from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the
ABS has been triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.
Brake types
Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use. They
can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves that are individually
controlledand the number of speed sensors.[18]
Four-channel, four-sensor ABS
This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve
for all four wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors each wheel individually to
make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.
Three-channel, four-sensor ABS
There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of the front
wheels, but only one valve for both of the rear wheels. Older vehicles with four-wheel
ABS usually use this type.
Three-channel, three-sensor ABS
This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor
and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear
wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This system
provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can both achieve maximum
braking force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored together; they both have to start
to lock up before the ABS will activate on the rear. With this system, it is possible that
one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness. This system
is easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for the rear wheels.
Two-channel, four sensor ABS

This system, commonly found on passenger cars from the late '80s through early 2000s
(before government mandated stability control), uses a speed sensor at each wheel, with
one control valve each for the front and rear wheels as a pair. If the speed sensor detect
lock up at any individual wheel, the control module pulses the valve for both wheels on
that end of the car.
One-channel, one-sensor ABS
This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve,
which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle. This
system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are
monitored together and they both have to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this
system it is also possible that one of the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake
effectiveness. This system is also easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors
for any of the wheels.