Kim's Kurdish Grammar

A Basic Guide to
Kurdish Grammar

A self-study reference and practice book
Danielle H. Kim

A Basic Guide to Kurdish Grammar


FREE DOWNLOAD

You can download the soft copy of this book from the CLIK (Culture and Language
Institute of Kurdi and Kori) website: https://www.clik2rock.org

ANY QUESTIONS OR COMMENTS?
Send me an email at [email protected]

Contents
Title

Page
Number

Chapter 1. Kurdish Alphabet
The Alphabet
- Consonants
- Simple Vowels
- Complex Vowels)
Reading Exercise

------------------------------------------------
1
Chapter 2. Grammatical Units
The Parts of Speech
The Parts of the Sentence
Traits of Kurdish

------------------------------------------------
7
Chapter 3. The Noun Phrase
Noun Suffixes
- The Absolute State
- The Indefinitive State
- The Definitive State
Demonstratives
Personal Pronouns
- Independent Pronoun
- Bound Pronoun
Izafe
Possessives
Enclitic ish

------------------------------------------------
12
Chapter 4. Linking Verbs
Mostly equivalent to to be in English
Negative Statements
Sentences With Linking Verbs
Exercises

------------------------------------------------
23
Chapter 5. Questions
Making Questions
- Yes/No Questions
- Using Question Words
- Sample Questions

------------------------------------------------
26
Chapter 6. Adjectives
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Formation of Noun, Adjective and Adverb
Sentence Order

------------------------------------------------
27
Chapter 7. Prepositions Part I
Introduction to Prepositions
Preposition & Postposition
Adverbial Phrases

------------------------------------------------
31

Chapter 8. Verb Types
Intransitive & Transitive
Simple, Complex, Compound
Summary

------------------------------------------------
34
Chapter 9. Tenses
Finding Stem & Root for Verb Conjugation
Present and Future
Imperatives (Commands)
Past Tense
- Simple Past
- Past Continuous/Habitual
- Present Perfect
- Past Perfect

------------------------------------------------
37
Chapter 10. Irregular Verbs

, ,

Special Compound Verbs

------------------------------------------------
61
Chapter 11. Passives
Formation
Irregular Passives
Factitive Verbs

------------------------------------------------
66
Chapter 12. Prepositions Part II
Time
Place
Way, Method
Position Prepositions
Idioms
Other Postfixes

------------------------------------------------
69
Chapter 13. Subjunctives
The Present Sujunctive
The Past Subjunctive
How To Use The Subjunctive
- Simple Sentence
- The Irrealis Mood
- Conditional Sentence Type I
- Conditional Sentence Type II
- Conditional Sentence Type III
- Common Modal Verbs & Adjectives

------------------------------------------------
76
Chapter 14. Conjunctioins
Co-ordinate Conjunctions
Conjunctive Adverbs
Relative Pronoun
Subordinate Conjunctons
------------------------------------------------
87

PREFACE
Kurdish belongs to the Western Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-
European family. The two principal branches of modern literary Kurdish are (1) Kurmanji,
the language of the vast majority of Kurds in Turkey, Syria, Armenia, and Azerbaijan with
an estimated 15-17 million speakers, and (2) Sorani, the language of most Kurds in Iraq
(5 million speakers) and Iran (5-6 million speakers).
Iraqi Kurdistan, essentially unrepresented and repressed by previous Iraqi governments, is
emerging as a major force in post-Saddam Iraq. As the rest of Iraq has plunged into a
downward spiral, Kurdistan has enjoyed relative political stability and suffered limited
violence, in part owing to a sectarian and political homogeneity lacking elsewhere in the
country. The Kurdish region has enjoyed de facto autonomy since 1991, when the
American military established a no-flight zone there, a status formalized by the new Iraqi
Constitution.

Sorani has been the second official language of Iraq since the creation of the country after
World War I and has been the working language of the Kurdistan Regional Government
(KRG), schools and the media of Iraqi Kurdistan. Sorani is also the most studied and best-
known Kurdish language among all its dialects.

The interest and demand for learning Sorani has never been so significant, as more
international businessmen and workers come to this new world and find opportunities.

This book is written to help anyone who is interested in studying Sorani. No prior
knowledge is necessary to start studying this book. While I tried to avoid exceedingly
advanced grammar or too many details, I also tried to put together most fundamental
grammar rules for devoted learners.

As a Sorani beginner, I struggled to find a well-explained grammar book when I first came
to Hawler. The single biggest beneficiary of this book should be myself since I learned the
most as I gathered information and wrote this book J, and Id be just glad if this book can
also help somebody out there, struggling to grasp the language.

Sorani is a beautiful language.
I hope all my readers enjoy studying Sorani as much as I did.

May 25, 2010
Danielle H. Kim
In Hawler, Iraqi Kurdistan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book wouldnt have been possible without the help and encouragement of
following people:
All of my dear friends and language teachers who kindly answered my bugging questions.:
Ahmed, Akar, Araz, Arazoo, Ashty, Azady, Bahara, Bakhtiyar, Dosty, Dr. Hewa, Hadia,
Hasan, Hawre, Hazha, Huda, Lulav, Kak Namk, Kak Smko, Kayhan, Khabat, Media, Naz,
Nazira, Nina, Parwin, Rezan, Roopak, Rozha, Shahla, Snoor, Soma, Suheila, Sumeiya,
Taban, Taha, Tahr and Zhian.
Sangar, for your thorough knowledge in Kurdish and for reviewing this book.
Jeanne, for your careful editing.
Team Jubilee, for your loving support and prayer.
The Ministry of Culture of KRG, for publishing this book.
Finally and most importantly, my Lord, God, for providing me persistent interest & love in
studyng Kurdish, and strength & wisdom that I needed to finish this book.
Thank you for calling me to Kurdistan.

REFERENCES
The following books were consulted throughout the process of writing this book:

MOST THOROUGHLY STUDIED

Thackston, W.M. Sorani Kurdish, A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings Iranian
Studies at Harvard University. https://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sorani/index.html

OTHER REFERENCES
Rempel, Chrie Exercises in Sorani Grammar Kurdish Language & Culture Institute, 2003
Qaradaghy, Aram Kurdish Phrase-Book Sulemaniya, 2002
Qazzaz, Shafiq The Sharezoor Kurdish-English Dictionary Aras Press and Publishers
Erbil, 2000
Salah, Mohamad S. Sana for Learning Arabic-Kurdish-English 2009
Ali, Ihasan JAF English-Kurdish Dictionary 2009 [email protected]
Mohammad, Shirwan Oxford Photo Dictionary English-Kurdish 2008
Nawkhosh, Salam Oxford Dictionary Kurdish-English Sulemaniya, 2002


Kurdish is a beautiful language.

1

1. KURDISH ALPHABET
THE ALPHABET

Arabic
Character
Shape
Changes
Latin
Equivalent
Phonetic Pronounciation Examples
Consonants
1

N/A
Hamze is not treated as a
separate letter of the
alphabet. It always occurs
in conjunction with a vowel.
,
,

2

B
B as in Bed

3

P
P as in Pen

4

T
T as in Test

5

C
J as in James, Joe

6

CH as in Chair

7

H
This consonant is
pronounced with a strong
expulsion of air from the
chest. It is similar to the
sound you make when you
fog a mirror with your
breath (hah).
There is an increasing
tendency in modern Kurdish
to substitute (H) for (H).
1)

8

X
A voiceless velar fricative
consonant
1)

CH as in German Bach

9

D
D as in Dad
2)

10

R
R as in brain
3)

11

R
Trilled R.
3)

No equivalent in English.
Like rr in Spanish

12

Z
Z as in Zero

2

13

J
Equivalent to French J as in
pleasure and measure

14

S
S as in Sea

15

SH as in Ship

16

AH
A voiced velar fricative
No equivalent in English
1)

,

17

GH
A voiced velar fricative
No equivalent in English
1)

18

F
F as in Feel

19

V
V as in Victory

20

Q
Q as in Iraq
1)

(local pronunciation)
A voiceless uvular stop

21

K
K as in Key

22

G
G as in Girl, gas

23

L
L as in Lot, Lost

24

Like the dull L of English as
in all, college

25

M
M as in Me

26

N
N as in Not

27

W
W as in Wear, tower
4)

28

H
H as in Hot, Handsome

29

Y
Y as in Yard, play
4)

Vowels are continued in the next page.

3

Simple Vowels
0
N/A N/A
I
UE as in dialogue, fatigue
Also, consider the vowel
sound made in good,
fallen or handle
5)

[b-rn-j]
1

A
A long vowel as in
market, arm

2

E
A short vowel as in
1) hot (in most cases)
2) ugly, but (e.g. )
3) guess (e.g. )
6)

3

U
U as in Put, Pull

4

OO as in boot

5

EE as in feet, tree

6

E as in End, hen

7

O
O as in poke, token

Complex Vowels
1

AY
AY as in May, Way

2

YO
YO as in Yogurt

3

YU
YU as in You;
UE as in que

4

YA / YE
1) if in ending or before
vowel, YA as in Yahoo
2) if before consonant,
YE as in Yes

5

WA
WA as in Washington

6

WE
WA as in War, Wash

7

WI
WI as in We, Wii

8

W
WE as in Weapon

4

Note:
1) , , , and sounds dont exist in English.
Even peculiar Kurdish words dont include , , and . However, since
there are many Arabic words mixed in the everyday Kurdish language, these letters
and sounds need to be familiarized.

2) In some parts of Kurdistan (e.g. Suli, Kirkuk) the letter D is often softened to the
point of being inaudible. The most prominent example of this case is the present
modal prefix .
(Standard) = (Sulemaniya Dialect)
(Standard) = (Sulemaniya Dialect)

3) In Kurdish, no words begin with , all initial Rs are trilled . Though the sign
(to signify trilled R) is rarely marked when comes as an initial letter, the initial
Rs always mean .
= | =

4) In Kurdish, (w & u) and (y & i) can be treated as either a noun or a vowel.

Vowel Consonant Vowel Consonant

u-too wi-steun een-glee-zi ya-sa
n. iron v. to want n. English n. law

5) This is the only vowel not indicated in the Kurdish writing system.
a. When there are two consecutive consonants, this vowel is used.
b. When a consonant is alone or placed at the end without any adjacent vowel,
this vowel is recognized.

Alone

[pue]
With Vowel

[pee]
Consonant
Ending

[geu-reun-gue]
Vowel Ending

[geu-reun-ga]
Consecutive
Consonants

[beu-reun-jue]
Mixed with
Vowels

[ba-za-rrue]
Consonant
Ending

[fe-reu-hen-gue]
Consonant Ending
W/ Preceding
Vowel

[nee-nok]

5

6) In general, Kurdish letters are pronounced as written. This vowel, however,
can have different sounds in certain cases.

In general
Short a sound

[ge-u-re]
[de-reu-ga]
sound

[w-ku]
sound

[g-neum]
[g-reum]

7) When , , and become the initial letter of a word, the Hamze is
necessary.

Beginning Middle or End

,

,

,

When and are the initial letter of a word as a vowel, they are also written
with the Hamze .

As consonant As vowel

6

READING EXERCISE

English Meaning Kurdish Pronunciation
eye

cha-.u
fruit
mee.we
carrot

g.ze.reu
almond
ba-.dem
ear
gyu.
health

ten.dru.stee
genius
bl.ee.met
comfortable
a-.soo.de
doctor
p.zee.shk
nice
xo.sh / kho.sh
dangerous
t.r.s.na-k
salty
su..re
sleep
xe.u.tn / khe.u.tn
never
he.r.gee.z
miracle
mu.ah.jee.ze
prophet
pe.ghem.be.r

English Meaning Kurdish Pronunciation
an egg

hl.ke.yk
a book

k.t.bk
the book
k.t.be.ke
the egg on the table

hl.ke.ke le.se.r.m.ze.ke
a good day

.sh - .kee.ba o.zh r
Tell me.
.
pm.b.l
Listen to me.
.
gyu.m.l.b.g.re
Im going to bazaar.
.
r . - .za - m.bo.ba de.ch
When do you come back?

.ee.te.we? r kay.de.ge.

7

2. GRAMMATICAL UNITS
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb(),
the noun(), the pronoun( ), the adjective( ), the adverb(), the
preposition(), the conjunction(), and the interjection ().
Verb (): Verbs expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
to climb, to eat, to clean, to be
Noun (): Nouns are words that name people, places or things.
car, country, wife, hour
Pronoun ( ): Pronouns substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and designates persons
or things asked for, previously specified, or understood from the context.
we, you, myself
Adjective ( ): Adjectives modify nouns.
good, smart, cold, quick
Adverb (): Adverbs modify verb and adjectives.
quickly, always, approximately
Preposition (): A word or phrase placed typically before a substantive and
indicating the relation of that substantive to a verb, an adjective, or another substantive,
as English at, by, with, from, and in regard to.
to, in/at, by/with, on
Determiner: The functional category that is most closely associated with nouns.
the, a/an, some, forty-five
Conjunction (): Conjunction serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
and, but, therefore
Interjection (): Interjection usually expresses emotion and is capable of
standing alone.
oh, really?, come on!

8

THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how people construct sentences
from smaller pieces. There is not a direct correspondence between the parts of the
sentence and the parts of speech the subject of a sentence, for example, could be a
noun, a pronoun, or even an entire phrase or clause.
SUBJECT() AND PREDICATE()
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject() and a predicate().
The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate (which always
includes the verb) tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the
predicate is underlined, while the subject is highlighted.
Azad runs.

Azad and his friends
run at the park every day.

OBJECTS() AND COMPLEMENTS()
OBJECTS()
A verb may be accompanied by an object that completes the verb's meaning. Two kinds
of objects may come with verbs: 1) direct objects and 2) indirect objects. To determine if
a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing
"whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object:
My mom cooked dolma.

Sangar gave her the book.

In the first example, dolma is the direct object.
Dolma is a famous local Kurdish food (a stuffed vegetable, especially a grape leaf or
cabbage leaf, onion, eggplants and zucchini cooked with a filling of ground meat,
herbs, or rice.).

In the second example, the book is the direct object and her is the indirect object.

9

COMPLEMENTS()
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb,
called the linking verb. The word (or phrase) which comes together with a linking verb is
not an object, but a complement. A subject complement can be a noun, an adjective, or
a prepositional phrase. The most common linking verb is "", which is equivalent to to
be in English.
Hewa is a student.
Hewa is a Kurdish.

Hewa is smart.
Hewa is handsome.

Hewa is here.
Hewa is in school.

TRAITS OF KURDISH
ENDINGS
In Kurdish, both nouns and verbs are combined with various endings. Articles (e.g. a, the)
and possessives (e.g. my) are added to the end of the noun as suffixes. The verb
conjugations are complicated since they embrace not only tenses, but also subjective and
objective pronouns as well.
ARTICLES/POSSESSIVES/DEMONSTRATIVES
book

his book

books

his books

a book

this book

the book

that book

the books

these books

VERB CONJUGATIONS
See (infinitive)

I saw.

I see.

I saw you.

I see you.

I didnt see you.

I dont see.

I have seen.

I dont see you.

I had seen.

10

WORD ORDER
The general rule is Subject Object Verb. When the subject is a pronoun, however, it
is often omitted (Object Verb). In Kurdish, a verb alone can make a complete sentence
as it is always combined with the subject pronominal enclitic (=bound pronoun). When
the object is a pronoun, it can also be attached to the verb in the form of bound pronoun.
Subject Object Verb
The girl sees the boy.

She sees the boy.

She sees him.
()
She sees him.

INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS AND BOUND PRONOUNS
In Kurdish, there are two different types of personal pronouns:
Independent ( )
Bound ( )
Subjective Independent Pronoun is often omitted while Subjective Bound
Pronoun(underlined) is always placed in a verb conjugation.
With
Independent Subject
Without
Independent Subject
I understand
. .
You understand
. .
She understands
. .
We understand
. .
They understand
. .
Subjective Bound Pronoun(Subjective BP) can be considered as a verb suffix
that conjugates depending on the subject status.

11

PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS
In Kurdish, prepositions ( , , etc.) are often followed by their corresponding
postpositions to envelop a word or a phrase. The preposition itself marks the beginning of
the prepositional phrase, and the end of the complement is marked by a postpositional
element.
Come with me. . He came from Hawler .
VERB TYPES
Kurdish verbs can be classified in different ways.
By necessity of the object
- Linking Verb (equivalent to the to be verb in English)
- Intransitive: to go , to leave , to sleep , to stay
- Transitive: to eat , to see , to sell , to study
By number of meaningful words in a verb
- Simple: A verb with one meaningful word
o to go , to eat
- Complex: A verb with [a meaningful word] + [a meaningless prefix/suffix]
o to run , to elect
- Compound: A verb with more than two meaningful words.
o to listen , to start
It is important to understand the verb types, since the verb conjugations are quite
different in each case.
Even when you memorize vocabulary words, it is better to memorize intransitive verbs and
transtive verbs separately until you become comfortable with their conjugations. More
details will be covered in later chapters.

12

3. THE NOUN PHRASE
NOUN SUFFIXES
THE ABSOLUTE STATE (WITHOUT ANY SUFFIX)
A Kurdish noun in the absolute state (lexical form; without any ending of any kind) gives a
generic sense of the noun.
Sky is blue.
.
CARDINAL NUMBERS
The cardinal numbers are as follows:
1

11

21

0

2

12

22

200

3

13

30

1,000
,

4

14

40

10,000

5

15

50

1,000,000

6

16

60

250

7

17

70

500

8

18

80

750

9

19

90

1,250
,

10

20

100

2,500
,

All words having to do with time and instance follow the cardinal number
immediately in the absolute state:

six months

four days

The cardinal number can be followed by a classifier, which is also followed by the
singular noun in the absolute state.

Common Classifiers Examples
For counting people
,
ten people
,
For counting animals

five sheep

For counting things

three books
) (

13

For counting people or animals, classifiers are used in most cases.
For counting things the classifier is optional. It is okay to say without .
THE INDEFINITIVE STATE ( | )
The Indefinitive state of noun is equivalent to a/an + noun in English.
-(y)ek ( - after consonants & , , - after , , and ) is added
to the end of the absolute singular noun.
The Indefinitive plural is formed by adding an( - ) to the absolute noun.

Absolute State Indefinitive Singular Indefinitive Plural
man

a man

men

day

a day

days

door

a door

doors

letter

a letter

letters

Vowel is added where two vowels conflict.

QUANTIFIERS FOR INDEFINITIVE NOUNS
In Kurdish, some quantifiers demand that the following noun be Indefinitive.
Indefinitive Quantifiers Examples
a few

a few men

every / all

every day

all the time

What?

What page?

each

each direction

every person

14

NUMBER +

Meaning Combination Suffix Number
tens of

thousands of

hundreds of

DAY +

Meaning Combination Suffix Number
daily/every day

weekly / every week

monthly / every month

THE DEFINITIVE STATE ()
The definitive state of noun is equivalent to the + a noun in English.
The definitive singular is made by adding aka ().
o - after consonants, and
o - after , , and
The definitive plural is made by adding akan ().

Absolute State Definitive Singular Definitive Plural
man

the man

the men

American

the American

the Americans

student

the student

the students

girl

the girl

the girls

door

the door

the doors

window

the window

the windows

village

the village

the villages

15

DEMONSTRATIVES
In Kurdish demonstratives can be expressed in two different forms.
standalone pronoun
adjective, which breaks into two parts and envelops a noun by attaching the first
part before the noun and the second part to the end of the noun.
Pronoun Form Adjective Form
Singular Plural Singular Plural
this / these
___ ___
that / those
___ ___

Demonstrative pronouns take the place of nouns.
Give me the red pen.

Give me this.

Is that your son?

What are those?

Demonstrative adjectives modify a noun.
How much is this pen?

How much is this red pen?

How much is those pens?

Who is that boy?

This place is nice.

16

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
In Kurdish, personal pronouns have two forms: 1) Independent & 2) Enclitic (Bound)

INDEPENDENT PRONOUN ( )

Singular Plural
1
st
person I:Me

We:Us

2
nd
person You(sng):You(sng)

You(pl):You(pl)

3
rd
person He/She/It:Him/Her/It

They:Them

The words in the gray box represent local dialects, mostly Hawleri style.
sng = singular, pl = plural
TRAITS OF INDEPENDENT PRONOUN
Unlike English, subjective pronouns and objective pronouns are the same.

Subjective Pronouns Objective Pronouns
I am a student.
.
Is this for them?

We are going to Bazzar.
.
He loves me.
.
For subjective cases, these independent pronouns are often omitted. Especially
when speaking, it is more common not to mention the personal pronoun subject,
unless the subjective entity is to be emphasized.

Even when there is no subject, the subjective suffix (=the bound pronoun) attached
to the verb, will voice the subject of the sentence.

Noun subject is never omitted. J

17

BOUND PRONOUN ( ) FOR VERB CONJUGATION
Both subjective and objective bound pronouns may take one of these two forms:
Set I or Set II.

Set I Set II
1st person
m een m man
2nd person
\
eet/ee

n

t

tan
3rd person
\
t/

n

y

Yan
The correct bound pronoun set (Set I or Set II) for both the subject and the object -
is decided according to the following conditions:
The verbs type (transitive, intransitive or irregular)
The verbs tense (present or past)
The existence of independent object (noun or independent pronoun) or pre-
verbal element.
SUBJECTIVE BOUND PRONOUN
In Kurdish the subject (regardless of being omitted or indicated) is always coupled with a
pronominal enclitic (= Subjective Bound Pronoun) at some part of the verbal
conglomerate (e.g. the verb, any preverbal prefixes, compounding agent).
The girl studies math.
.
She studies math.
. ()
She studied math. (Past tense)
. ()
They ran. (Past tense)
. ()
OBJECTIVE BOUND PRONOUN
Also, when the object is a pronoun, the sentence can be rewritten with its corresponding
pronominal enclitic (= objective bound pronoun).
He sees us. (Present Tense)
With Subject Without Subject
Independent Pronoun Object
. .
Bound Pronoun Object
. .

18

They see you. (Present Tense)
. .
. .
They saw you. (Simple Past Tense)
. .
. . \
Details will be discussed thoroughly in later chapters.
IZAFE
GENERAL RULE
THE IZAFE(= LINKING VOWEL: ) CONSTRUCTION
The Izafe links the two parts of a possessive construction and is equivalent to the English
of. The Izafe is written as and added directly to the first part of the construction.
the students of a school

a door of the house

the lessons of this book

WITH ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
The Izafe also links adjectives and nouns.
When noun-adjective constructions are enveloped by the demonstratives (e.g.
on page 15) or modified by the definitive suffix (e.g. on page 14), the linking
vowel, Izafe changes from to .

Examples are followed in the next page.

19

a. Kurdish girl (in general, absolute form)

b. Kurdish girl (in general, absolute form)

c. A Kurdish girl (indefinitive) (common)

d. A Kurdish girl (indefinitive) (rarely used)

e. The Kurdish girl (definitive)

f. This Kurdish girl (demonstrative)

Example a & b and c & d are interchangeable respectively.

a good hotel

(correct)
a long letter
(correct)
(wrong) (wrong)
easy lessons
(wrong)
the big house
(wrong)
(correct) (correct)
this easy lesson

these big houses

ORDINAL NUMBERS
The ordinal numbers are as follows:
1
st

9
th

17
th

2
nd

10
th

18
th

3
rd

11
th

19
th

4
th

12
th

20
th

5
th

13
th

100
th

6
th

14
th

1000
th

/
7
th

15
th

8
th

16
th

IZAFE WITH ORDINAL NUMBERS

The 2
nd
stage (sophomore)

the 10
th
year

20

POSSESSIVES
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
The normal possessive pronouns are enclitics added to the noun.
They take the following forms:

Singular Plural
1
st
person my

our

2
nd
person your

your

3
rd
person his/her/its

their

GENERAL RULE
In general, the enclitic possessive pronouns are added to the definitive form of the noun,
next to aka() or akan() endings.
your book

their pens

his students

our bag

EXCEPTIONS
Prominent exceptions to the general formation are names, parents, homes, and body parts.
For these cases, the enclitics are added to the absolute form of the noun.
my hand

your house

your name

my mother

our hourse

your father

For kinship terms (besides mother and father), both definitive and absolute forms
are possible.

Definitive Form Absolute Form
your sister

my sons

your brother

21

If the 1
st
person possessive enclitic is attached to the definitive form of certain nouns,
it often delivers rhetorical nuance.

Regular Use Rhetorical Use
my spirit

sweetie, my dear

my eye

sweetie, my dear

my breath

sweetie, my dear

my life

sweetie, my dear

The Kurdish language is very romantic. When you address a friend, a younger person,
your student or someone close to you, it is preferred to use these expressioins, rather
than call someone by ones name.
THE IZAFE CONSTRUCTION
The possessive noun phrase can also be constructed using Izafe.
With Possessive Enclitic With Izafe
my book

their answers

your pen

The Izafe possessive construction is used to emphasize or clarify the ownership to
whom it belongs. In general, for speaking purposes, shortened enclitic form is
preferred.

ONES ()

Singular Plural
1
st
person mine

ours

2
nd
person yours

yours

3
rd
person his/hers/its

theirs

Is this yours?

This book is mine.
.
The pens are theirs.
.

22

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ()

Singular Plural
1
st
person myself

ourselves

2
nd
person yourself

yourselves

3
rd
person himself/herself

themselves

Ill take a shower (I wash myself)
.
You know it (by yourself), dont you?
,
Write your name
(= the name of yourself) here!
!

ENCLITIC ISH ( \ )
The enclitic particle ish ( \ ) have the English meanings of too / also / even.
It is added to nouns, noun-adjective phrases and pronouns.
When added to words ending in vowels, ish yields its own vowel in favor of the preceding
vowel, becoming sh.
Add to a noun or a pronoun that ends in a consonant.
Add to a noun or a pronoun that ends in a vowel.
me

me too

this book

this book too

When added to words that have a possessive pronoun enclitic, ish intervenes in between
the noun and the possessive enclitic.
your father

your father too

my friends

even my friends

Note that possessive enclitics are always added at the end of the noun phrase.

23

4. LINKING VERBS
MOSTLY EQUIVALENT TO TO BE IN ENGLISH
The linking verbs (or the present tense copulas: am, is, are) consist of the following
enclitics:
Singular Plural
1
st
person (I) am

(We) are

2
nd
person (You) are
\
1)

(You) are

3
rd
person (He) is
|
2)

(They) are

1) The inherent () shown for the 2
nd
person singular is characteristic of literary
Kurdish, and seldom appears in the informal spoken language.

You are smart. ()
. () = . ()
Where are you? ( )
() = ()

2) The 3rd person singular linking verb is . However, if the complement or
adverbial phrase has a vowel ending, such as , or at the end,
y[ee] () sound is inserted to induce an easier pronunciation.

This is big. ()
.
She is a teacher. ()
.

3) When the 3
rd
person singular possessive enclitic() is followed by the 3
rd
person
singular ending , a special form, is used.
This is her book. ()
.
This is her son. ( )
.
For other cases of , see the 3
rd
person singular Subjective BP of the
Present Perfect tense on page 59 and Irregular Verbs on page 61.

He had eaten. . ()
The child is hungry. .

24

NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
To negate a linking verb statement, add () to the linking verb.
They are not smart. ()
. + ()
He is not here. ()
. + ()
SENTENCES WITH LINKING VERBS
The linking verb can be combined with 1) an adjective phrase or 2) a noun phrase
complement or 3) an adverbial phrase.
COMPLEMENT + LINKING VERB

A complement relates to the subject: it describes the subject or identifies it (says who or
what it is).
COMPLEMENT WITH ADJECTIVE PHRASE

She() is() pretty().
. + ()
She() is() not pretty().
. + + ()
You() are() brave().
. + ()
They( ) are() sick().
. + ()
COMPLEMENT WITH NOUN PHRASE

We are() teachers().
. + ()
We are() not teachers().
. + + ()
She is() my wife().
. + ()
ADVERBIAL + LINKING VERB

I am() at school( ).
. + ()
I am() not at school( ).
. + + ()
My pen is() on the red table().
.

25

SUMMARY

This child is my son.
.
The red apple is yours.
.
Baktiyar and I are at the bazaar.
.

When ones nationality is the subject matter, it is also acceptable to add to the
ending of the Linking Verb. (Especially for speaking, this way is more preferred. J)

I am Korean.
. = .
I am not Chinese.
. = .
They are Japanese.
. = .
We are not Kurdish.
. = .
EXERCISES

Red dress is pretty. (in general)
.
The red dress is pretty. (definitive)
.
The red dresses are pretty. (definitive plural)
.
This red dress is pretty. (demonstrative)
.
Your red dress is pretty. (possessive)
.
Red Kurdish dress is pretty. (in general)
.
The red Kurdish dress is pretty. (definitive)
.
This red Kurdish dress is pretty. (demonstrative)
.
Your red Kurdish dress is pretty. (possessive)
.
This is his daughter.
\ .
This is my friends daughter.
.
This is my fathers friends daughter.
.
This pen is yours.
.
The black, cool, fantastic pants are my sisters.
.
We are Juniors(3
rd
stage students)
at Salahaddin University.
.
Sangar and Hasan are my friends.
.
You are not visible.
(I havent seen you for a long time)
.

26

5. QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
To make a statement into a formal question, simply add at the beginning of the
question. is usually used in written language, while in informal speech, raising the
voice tone at the end is enough to make the statement a question without any change to
the sentence structure.

With (formal, written) Without (spoken)
Is this yours?

Are you an English teacher?

Are these flowers roses?

USING QUESTION WORDS

Who

How

Where
( ,)
How many / old / What time (num)

What
,
How much (price)

Why

Which one of them

When

Which (relative pronoun)

In Kurdish, question words dont change the word order of the sentence. The general rule
(subject object/complement verb) is applied in both questions and statements.
Sample questions:
Who is this boy?

Where are you
from?

How are you?

Where is a pen?

How old is he?

Where are you
going?

How much are those?

Where is the
hospital?

How far is it from here?

What time is it?

Which one is better?

What is your
telephone number?

27

6. ADJECTIVES
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
SUFFIXES " " & " "
The comparative & the superlative degree of the adjective are formed by suffixing and
respectively.

Comparative Superlative
Smart smarter Smartest

Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

Easy easier Easiest

THAN
The preposition of comparison is , as in the following examples.
Today is colder than yesterday.
.
This is better than that.
.
This is better than that.
.
SUPERLATIVE " "
Adding before an adjective is another way of making superlative expressions.
the smartest | the most active | the bravest
Dastan is the smartest among
the 1
st
graders
.
and can be used together to emphasize the superlative.

Smartest

28

SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES COME BEFORE THE NOUN
Superlative adjectives precede the nouns they modify, as in
the most beautiful child

the coldest day

the smartest person

the best things

Shaqlawa is the nicest place.
.
the coolest thing

FORMATION OF NOUN, ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB
ADJECTIVE NOUN
Adding at the end of the adjective makes a noun.
Adjective Noun
beautiful

beauty

intelligent

intelligence

wise

wisdom

true

truth

polite

politeness

sick

sickness

healthy

health

sour

pickle

free

freedom

nice/good/cool

happiness

Its not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. (Matthew 9:12)
(12 : 9 ) ,
"I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except
through me.
(John 14:6)
.
) 14 : 6 (

29

NOUN ADJECTIVE
Adding the preposition, (with, by) at the beginning of the noun makes an adjective.
Noun Adjective
doubt

doubtful/
suspicious

liver(organ)

brave

power

strong

religion
\
religious
/
fear

fearful

taste

tasty

mercy

merciful

glory

glorious
=
respect

dear

Dolma is so delicious (tasty)!
!
ADJECTIVE ADVERB
GENERAL RULE
Adding the preposition, (with, by) or (without) at the beginning of the adjective
and at the end makes a noun.
+ adjective + \

Adjective Adverb
sure

surely

suspicious

of course

fast (e.g. this is fast)

fast (e.g. runs fast)

hesitant

without hesitation

slow

slowly

30

WORD ORDER
ADJECTIVE AS A COMPLEMENT
1) Subject 2) Complement 3) Linking Verb (Present Copula)

The mountain is high.
.
The film is very interesting.
.
The downstairs room is dark.
.
ADJECTIVE AS A MODIFIER
1) The modified noun precedes, 3) the modifying adjective follows and 2) the noun and
adjective are connected by the Izafe .
a high mountain

* a very interesting film

delicious meal

The adverb, that modifies the adjective, comes before the adjective. (See page 32.)

31

7. PREPOSITIONS - PART I
INTRODUCTION TO PREPOSITIONS
WHAT IS A PREPOSITION?

A preposition is a word like in, to, for and out of in English.
Here are some of their Kurdish counterparts.

English Preposition Kurdish
prepositions
Examples
with/by (a method/way)

(I travel) by car

to (a person)

(Talk) to me

without (something)

without money

to/toward (a place)

(I went) to Bazaar

for (a reason/person)

For what?, for you

in/at (a place)

at home, in here
,
HOW TO USE A PREPOSITION
A preposition usually comes before a noun phrase.
for two years

with you

to his friends house

by my dads car

A prepositional phrase can be an object or an adverbial.
I studied Kurdish.
.
I studied Kurdish for 2 years.
.
Come!
!
Come with me!
!
I give (it).
.
I give it to you.
.
Listen!

Listen to this song!

32

PREPOSITION & POSTPOSITION
Certain prepositions (especially, ) are coupled with a postposition to envelop the
complement together. The preposition itself marks the beginning of the prepositional
phrase, and the end of the complement is marked by a postpositional element.

Coupling
Postposition
Preposition Examples
in, at (a place)

in Kurdistan

in America

finally

in front of

....
from (a place)

from afar

because of

because of that

for the sake of

for you

ADVERBIAL PHRASES
In Kurdish, most adverbs and adverbial phrases are added after the subject.
Subject Adverb Verb
Subject Adverb Object/Complement Verb
Notable exceptions are the adverbs of direction (to/for/towards somewhere), which
usually come after the verb.

ADVERB OF TIME/FREQUENCY

Ill come.
.
Ill come tomorrow.
.
Ill leave.
.
Ill leave at 3 oclock.
.

More examples:
in the afternoon

at night

late

evening

early

yesterday

next year

last year

two yrs ago

33

ADVERB OF MANNER

Go!
!
Go fast!
!
Speak!
!
Speak slowly!
!

More examples:
slowly

quickly/fast

with them

by foot

** nicely

with them

by car

at once

** in a pretty way

** Some adjectives behave like adverbs as well.
ADVERB OF PLACE

Im going.

Im going to Halabja.
.
I came back.

I came back from school.
.
I came.

I came from afar.
.

More examples:
on (a thing)
.. .
from behind
...
to (a place)
....
under
...
behind
...
in (a place)
....
besides
...
below

from (a place)
....

Common expressions and Kurdish idioms with preposition will be covered in Chapter 12.
Preposition Part II.

34

8. VERB TYPES
INTRANSITIVE & TRANSITIVE
INTRANSITIVE
An intransitive verb is a verb that cannot take an object, although it may have an
adverbial/prepositional phrase along with it.

I understand very well.
() .
Ill come back early tomorrow.
() .
I live in Hawler.
() .
TRANSITIVE
A transitive verb is a verb that takes an object.

I study Kurdish.
() .
I dont have(eat) dinner.
() .
He sees you.
) ( () .

SIMPLE, COMPLEX, COMPOUND
Both intransitive and transitive verbs can be grouped under one of the following:
1) simple 2) complex 3) compound
Here, the number of meaningful words in a verb decides its classification.
SIMPLE VERBS
A simple verb is a one-word verb.
Intransitive Transitive
to arrive

to do

to go, to leave

to wash

to come

to take, to hold

to die

to eat

35

COMPLEX VERBS
A complex verb takes two forms:
A prefix (no-meaning) + a simple verb.
A simple verb + a suffix ) (
Intransitive
Suffix Simple verb Prefix Complex Verb
-

to arrive

to understand

again

to explore,
to search
-

to return
-

to obtain

to get up, wake up

Transitive
Suffix Simple verb Prefix Complex Verb
-

to drop

to close

again

to take
-

to win, overcome
-

to compensate

to elect, choose
COMPOUND VERB
Compound verb is a verb with more than two meaningful words.
Intransitive
Suffix Simple verb Pre-Word Compound Verb
-

to be, become

a. hungry

to become hungry
-

to come

n. sleep

to become sleepy

36

Transitive
Suffix Simple verb Pre-Word Compound Verb

again

to do, make

a. clean

v. clean
-

to give

n. hand

v. touch
SUMMARY

Intransitive Transitive
Simple

: to become

: to go

: to leave

: to sleep

: to wake up

: to come

: to die

:to do, work

: to eat

: to wash

: to take

: to see

: to know

: to bring
Complex

: to return

: to stay

: to sit

: to stand

: to understand

: to open

: to close

: to hold

: to reveal

Compound

: to become thirsty

: to become hungry

: to feel cold

: to ask

: to learn

: to remind

37

9. TENSES
FINDING STEM & ROOT FOR VERB CONJUGATION
All Kurdish verbs end with .
Past root, which is the base for past tense conjugation, is formed by
dropping the .
Present stem, which is the base for present tense conjugation, is normally
formed by dropping the and the second last letter of the verb.
However, there are many irregular cases as well.
vt. = transitive verb
vi. = intransitive verb
Verb
(Infinitive)
Past Stem Present Stem
By the rule
to see (vt)
to fall (vi)
to pull (vt)
to grab, hold (vt)
to wake up (vi)
to laugh (vi)
to die (vi)
to buy (vt)
to sell (vt)

[a] stem
to do (vt)
to drop (vt)
vi. to reach
to buy (vt)
to sell (vt)

[o] stem
to wash (vt)
to eat (vt)
to go, leave (vi)

[e] stem
to send (vt)
to know (vt)
to stay (vi)
burn (vi)
to return (vi)

_

_

_

_
Irregular
to come (vi)
to say (vt)

38

to go (vi)
to be, become (vi)
to kill (vt)
to rely on (vt)

PRESENT & FUTURE
USE OF PRESENT TENSE
In Kurdish, the simple present (e.g. I go), the present continuous (e.g. Im going) and the
future (e.g. I will go) tense are all expressed in the same manner.
Normally, the future sense is gained from context or by time expressions.
I leave now.
. ()
Ill leave tomorrow.
. ()
FORMATION OF PRESENT TENSE
SIMPLE VERBS
The present tense of the simple verb is formed from the present stem with a prefixed
modal marker (), and the following suffixed subjective endings (bound pronouns).
* All formation rules should be read from right to left.
Formation Rule
[Subjective BP][Present Stem]
to eat ()
+ + () ; (He eats)
The modal prefix, d- is used in most Kurdish dialects and is also the standard.
However, the modal prefix in Sulemani dialect is -.

Are you leaving? (Standard & Hawleri)

Are you leaving? (Sulemani)

Today, Im going to bazaar.
. () ,
Are you going to wash your hands, now?
() ,
Well come back.
. ()

39

SUBJECTIVE BOUND PRONOUNS FOR PRESENT TENSE

In the present tense, the Bound Pronouns Set I (page 17) is used for both intransitive
and transitive verb conjugations.
Intransitive Verb Transitive Verb
1
st
person

2
nd
person
\ \
3
rd
person
\ \
Note that the inherent (t:) shown for 2
nd
- and 3
rd
-person singular is characteristic of
literary Kurdish and seldom appears in the informal spoken language. The () is
recovered, however, when any enclitic or suffix(e.g. ) is added to the verb.
When written When spoken (informal)
Intransitive You go / Youll go.
. .
Transitive He writes / Hell write.
. .
With Suffix He rewrites / Hell rewrite.
.
Please note, for verbs with stems ending in a vowel[-, -, -], the 3
rd
person singular
bound pronouns slightly change.
A-STEM (-)
Common A-Stem Verbs:
() () () () ()
to do, work to reach, arrive to take to drop, throw to give

Infinitive Form

Present Stem

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1
st
person

2
nd
person
) ( ) ( ) (
3
rd
person
() () ()
Any complex or compound verbs with A-Stem verbs also behave as above.

40

O-STEM (-)
Common O-Stem Verbs:
() () ()
to leave to wash to eat

Infinitive Form

Present Stem

1
st
person

2
nd
person
) ( ) ( ) (
3
rd
person
() () ()

Ali is going to wash his face.
.
Danielle eats yogurt everyday.
.
E-STEM (-)
Common E-Stem Verbs: Verbs with ending often have E-Stems.

()

()

..) (

()

) (
to burn to travel to stay to break to cook

Infinitive
Form

Present
Stem
...
1
st
person

2
nd
person
) ( ) (
3
rd
person
()

When is Hewa coming back from Malaysia?

Rezan doesnt cook on Friday.
.

41

IRREGULAR VERBS
The following are prominent irregular verbs.
Infinitive
Form
(to come) (to say) (to kill)
Present Stem

1
st
person

2
nd
person
) ( () ()
3
rd
person
() () ()
COMPLEX VERB & COMPOUND VERBS
For complex or compound verbs:
1) The first part of the verb (either prefix or pre-word) gets separated from the rest
of the verb.
2) The modal marker () is attached before the second part of the present stem.
3) The subjective bound pronoun goes to the end of the present stem.
Formation Rule
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] [Prefix/Pre-Word]
to run ( )
+ + ; (I run, Im running)
Formation rules should be read from right to left.
If the complex or compound verb has the awa() suffix, the awa() is affixed
behind the personal endings.
Formation Rule
+[Subjective BP][Present Stem] [Prefix/Pre-Word]
v. to remember
( )
+ + + ; (I remember)
Formation rules should be read from right to left.
NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
To negate a present tense statement, change the modal prefix () to ( ).
Infinitive Affirmative Negative
Intransitive
(to go)

Transitive
(to write)

42

SUMMARY
Simple Verbs ( , ):
Intransitive Ill go (to school).
() ) ( .
Transitive We are eating (breakfast).
() ) (
Complex or Compound Verbs ( , , ):
Intransitive Ill sit (here).
() ) ( .
Transitive Ill start it (tomorrow).
() ) ( .
With Suffix
I clean (the room).
() ) ( .
TRANSITIVE VERB WITH OBJECT
NOUN OBJECT
NO PREPOSITION
In Kurdish the word order is Subject Object Verb. Following the rule, the noun object
comes after the subject (if exists) and before the verb.
I see() Ashty.
. ()
He makes( ) a nice desk.
. ()
Danielle studies() Kurdish.
.
WITH PREPOSITION
If the verb conglomerate includes a preposition, the noun object comes after the
preposition.
I listen to ) ( music.
. ()
She start with ) ( the work.
. ()

43

PRONOUN OBJECT
NO PREPOSITION
The pronoun object can be indicated in two different forms:
1) The Independent Pronoun form (e.g. , , )
2) The Bound Pronoun form (e.g. , , ).
1) The Independent Pronoun Object behaves the same as the noun object.
Formation Rule
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] Independent Object
to see ()
+ + ; (Ashty sees them)
2) The Bound Pronoun Object is inserted in between the modal prefix() and the
present stem of the verb.

In the present tense, Bound Pronouns Set II (page 17; same as the
possessive pronouns) is used for their objective suffixes.

Objective Bound Pronoun
Singular Plural
1
st
person

2
nd
person

3
rd
person

Formation Rule
[Subjective BP][Present Stem][BP Object]
v. to see ()
+ + ; (Ashty sees them)
SUMMARY

Noun Object
I see() Ashty. . ()
I see() her. . ()
I see() her. . ()

44

v. see again
Independent Pronoun Object Bound Pronoun Object
1
st
person

Youll see me again.

Youll see us again.

Youll see me again.

Youll see us again.
2
nd
person

Ill see you again.

Ill see you again.

Ill see you again.

Ill see you again.
3
rd
person

Ill see him again.

Ill see them again.

Ill see him again.

Ill see them again.

WITH PREPOSITION
When the object is a pronoun, the preposition + pronoun combination can be written
and said in two different ways as shown below:
Prep. + Independent Pronoun

Prep. + Bound Pronoun

1
st
person

2
nd
person

3
rd
person

Prep. + Independent Pronoun

Prep. + Bound Pronoun

1
st
person

2
nd
person

3
rd
person

When prepositions are combined with bound pronouns, they change their forms:
o (ba) becomes (pe)
o (da) becomes (te)
o (la) becomes (le)

45

The bound pronouns may either be 1) pre-posed, i.e. added to the word preceding the
preposition if there is any such word, or 2) postposed, i.e. added to the preposition itself if
there is no preceding word.
Subjective Bound Pronoun = Subjective BP, Objective Pronoun = Objective BP

I listen to ( ) them.
. ()
You start with( ) them.
. ()
I tell( ) you.
. ()
ONLY ONE PRONOUN OBJECT FOR SIMPLE VERB
A. Independent Pronoun Object (IP Object)
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] [IP Object]+[Prep.]
B. Bound Pronoun Object (BP Object)
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] [BP Object]+[Prep.]

I say( ... ) to you(). . ()
I say( ) to you(). . ()
ONLY ONE PRONOUN OBJECT FOR COMPLEX/COMPOUND VERB
C. Independent Pronoun Object (IP Object)
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] IP Object+[Prep]. [Compounding Agent]
D. Bound Pronoun Object (BP Object)
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] [Prep.] [BP][Compounding Agent]

I listen( ... ) to you().
. ()
I listen( ) to you().
. ()

46

THERE ARE TWO OBJECTS: DIRECT OBJECTS & INDIRECT OBJECTS
E. independent pronoun indirect object (IP Object)
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] [IP Object]+[Prep.] (Compounding Agent) [Direct Object]
F. bound pronoun indirect object (BP Object)
[Subjective BP][Present Stem] [Prep.] (Compounding Agent) [BP][Direct Object]

I give( ...) the books to you().
. ()
I give( ) the books to you().
. ()

I bring() you() water.
. ()
I bring() you() water.
. ()

47

SUMMARY
The subjective bound pronoun is fixed at the end of the verb stem.
Only the objective bound pronoun changes its position depending on the form of
the verb conglomerate.
o If there is a direct object of the noun or independent pronoun, the 2
nd

pronominal object (in this case, it is always the indirect object) goes right
behind the Direct Object in a bound pronoun form.
With Direct Object
With Objective BP Without Objective BP
Simple Verb
I give ) ( you the flower.
. .
Complex Verb
I choose ) ( the book for you.

.

.
Compound Verb
I clean ) ( the house for them.

.

.
o If there is no direct object of the noun or independent pronoun, but the verb
conglomerate includes preverbal prefixes or compounding agents, the
pre-word behaves like the direct object of the verb and the objective
bound pronoun goes behind the pre-word.
Without Direct Object
Simple Verb
I say ) ( to you.
. .
Complex Verb
I stop ) ( them.
. .
Compound Verb
I walk ) ( with you.
. .
o If there is no direct object and no preposition, no preverbal prefix or
compounding agent whatsoever, the objective bound pronoun goes in
between the present modal prefix ( , ) and the verb stem.
Without Direct Object

Simple Verb
I see ) ( them.
. .
Complex Verb
I dont know ) ( him.
. .

48

PRESENT TENSE REVIEW USING DAILY ROUTINE EXPRESSIONS

He wakes up.
.
He gets out of his bed.
.
He goes downstairs.
() .
He goes jogging.
.
He comes back from jogging.
.
He picks up the mail.
.
He takes a shower.
.
He gets dressed.
.
He has breakfast.
.
He leaves home.
.
He buys a newspaper.
.
He listens to music.
.
He catches the train.
.
He reads the newspaper.
.
He starts work.
.
He drinks some coffee.
.
He has lunch.
.
He finishes work.
.
He meets his friends.
.
He plays squash.
.
He has dinner.
.
He watches television.
.
He goes to bed.
.

49

IMPERATIVES (COMMANDS)
FORMATION OF IMPERATIVES
The subject of an imperative sentence is always or because its a command.
This is usually not explicitly stated.
(You) Come!
! ()
(You guys) Eat! ) ( !
WITHOUT OBJECT
The imperative is formed from the present stem with the prefix (), and with a suffixed
subjective ending, or .
If the imperatives subject is singular (), add at the end.
If the imperatives subject is plural ( ) , add at the end.
Singular Subject ( )
+[Present Stem]+
Plural Subject ()
+[Present Stem]+

Regular A-STEM O-STEM E-STEM Irregular
Infinitive
Form

to catch

to do, work

to eat

to travel

to come
Present Stem

Singular Subject
( )

(You) hold!

(You) do!

(You) eat!

(You) travel!

(You) come!
Note
By the rule is dropped! is dropped! is dropped! No rule!
Plural Subject
()

TRANSITIVE VERBS WITH OBJECT
All the object position rules are the same as the present verb case.

Independent Object
\ +[Present Stem] [Object]
With Pre-Word & Objective Bound Pronoun
(Preposition, Compounding Agents, etc.)
\ +[Present Stem] [BP][Pre-Word]
No Pre-Word & Objective Bound Pronoun
\ +[Present Stem][BP]

50

Eat ()

(You) eat!

(You) eat Dolma!

(You) eat it!

Study ()

(You) study!

(You) study Kurdish!

(You) study it!

Say ()

(You) say!

(You) say to me!

(You) say it to me

Listen ( )

(You) listen!

(You) listen to me!

(You) listen to me!

NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE
To negate the imperative command:
Drop () from the imperative.
Add () to the present stem.

Dont eat Dolma! !
Dont speak to me! !
Dont come tomorrow! !
Dont be angry! !

51

PAST TENSE
USE OF PAST TENSE
Four different kinds of Past Tense exist in the Kurdish Language.
Simple Past (e.g. I came., I ate dinner., I studied Kurdish. etc.)

Past Continuous/Habitual (e.g. I was eating dinner., I was studying. etc.)
o In Kurdish, certain verbs indicating someones likeness or hope are
commonly expressed with the Past Continuous tense, rather than the Simple
Past tense. (See How to use the subjunctive on page 80. )

Present Perfect (e.g. I have come.)
o For general purposes, the Present Perfect tense of Kurdish is equivalent to
the English Present Perfect.
o When an event started in the past and is still active:
(We have been seated here.)
o When we talk about something that happened in the past, but we don't
specify precisely when it happened (perhaps we don't know, or it is not
important to say when it happened):
(Have you eaten?)
(He has come.)

Past Perfect (e.g. I had come.)
o The Past Perfect tense of Kurdish is equivalent to the English Past Perfect
and mostly used for subjuctive expressions.
(I have left when mom came.)

52

FORMATION OF SIMPLE PAST
LINKING VERBS
The simple past tense of linking verbs is formed by adding the Subjective Bound
Pronoun (modified SET I on page 17) to .
Singular Plural
1
st
person (I) was

(We) were

2
nd
person (You) were
\
(You) were

3
rd
person (He) was

(They) were

Note that there is no subjective bound pronoun for the 3
rd
person singular subject.
HOW TO USE

[Subjective BP] [Complement]

ADJECTIVE PHRASE COMPLEMENT
She was() pretty. +
NOUN PHRASE COMPLEMENT
We were( ) teachers. +
ADVERBIAL + LINKING VERB
I was( ) at school. +
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
The simple past tense of intransitive verbs is formed by adding subjective bound pronoun
suffixes to the past stem of the verb.
[Subjective BP][Past Root]
SUBJECTIVE BOUND PRONOUNS
In the case of intransitive verbs, the Bound Pronoun Set I variation (page 17) is used
for the appropriate subjective suffixes.

53

Subjective Bound Pronouns
For Intransitive Verbs
Singular Plural
1
st
person

2
nd
person
\
3
rd
person None

Note that there is no subjective bound pronoun for the 3
rd
person singular subject,
while other subjective bound pronouns remain the same as in the present tense.

You left early. .
I sat there.
.
We understood.

.
The verb to understand is transitive in English, but in Kurdish, it means to reach to,
which gives a sense of to be understood, and functions as an intransitive. J
TRANSITIVE VERBS

SUBJECTIVE BOUND PRONOUNS AND OBJECTIVE BOUND PRONOUNS
In the past tense,
The Bound Pronoun Set II (page 17) is used for their subjective suffixes.
The Bound Pronoun Set I (page 17) is used for their objective suffixes.

Subjective BP
For Transitive Verbs
Objective BP
For Transitive Verbs
1
st
person

2
nd
person

3
rd
person
None
Bound Pronouns (both subjective and objective) are emphasized with bold below.
NO OBJECT
The simple past tense of transitive verbs is also formed by adding subjective bound
pronoun suffixes to the past stem of the verb.

54

NO OBJECT, BUT WITH PREPOSITION
[Past Root] [Subjective BP][Preposition]
COMPLEX OR COMPOUND VERBS
1) Without Objective Bound Pronoun
[Past Root] [Prep.] [Subjective BP][Pre-Word]

2) With Objective Bound Pronoun
[Objective BP][Past Root] [Prep.] [Subjective BP][Pre-Word]

WITH INDEPENDENT OBJECT (NOUN OR INDEPENDENT PRONOUN)
[Past Root] [Pre-Word] [Prep.] [Subjective BP][Object]
[Objective BP][Past Root] [Pre-Word] [Prep.] [Subjective BP][Object]

Examples:

I ate those.
. () .
I saw you.
. () .
I told you.
. () .
He gave you the book.
. .
They bought the flower for you.
. .
I missed them.
. .
She cooked dolma for them.
. .

55

FORMATION OF SIMPLE PAST NEGATIVE
To negate a past simple sentence, add the past negative prefix to the verb ending.
Note that the present negative prefix is ."
LINKING VERBS
Change the past ending() to ( ).
She wasnt() pretty.
. ()
We werent() teachers. . ()
I wasnt() at school. . ()
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
1) Simple Verb
2) Complex/Compound Verb
[Subjective BP][Past Root] [Pre-Word]

You didnt leave early.
I didnt sit there.
We didnt understand.
TRANSITIVE VERBS
The Subjective Bound Pronoun moves from the end of the verb to behind the negative
prefix ( ). If there is any preceding word besides the verb itself, the subjective
suffix(Subjective BP) goes behind the preceding word(e.g. object, preposition, etc.).
1) Simple Verb
A. No Object
[Past Root][Subjective BP]

56

B. No Object, With Preposition
[Past Root] [Subjective BP][Preposition]
C. With Noun Object
[Past Root] [(Prep.)] [Subjective BP][Object]
A. No Object
[Past Root] [Subjective BP][Pre-Word/Preposition]
B. With Noun Object
[Past Root] [Pre-Word/Preposition] [Subjective BP][Object]

I didnt eat those.
. () .
I didnt see you.
. () .
I didnt tell you.
. () .
He didnt give you the book.
. .
They didnt bring the flower for you.
. .
I didnt miss them.
. .
She didnt cook dolma for them.
. .

FORMATION OF PAST COUNTINUOUS/HABITUAL
Add the present modal prefix to the simple past form.

Note that the past continuous tense is similar to the negative simple past form,
except that the verb prefix is not but .

57

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

You were leaving early.

I was sitting there.

TRANSITIVE VERBS

I was eating those.
. () .
I was seeing you.
. () .
I was telling you. . () .
I was missing them. . .
PAST CONTINUOUS - NEGATIVE
To negate the past continuous statement, add in front of the past continuous.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS

You werent leaving early.

I wasnt sitting there.

TRANSITIVE VERBS

If there is no object or any kind of pre-verb precedents, the subjective bound pronoun
comes after .

I wasnt eating those.
. () .
I wasnt seeing you.
. () .
I wasnt telling you.
. () .
I wasnt missing them. . .

58

FORMATION OF PRESENT PERFECT
The present perfect tense is used for an action that started in the past and continues to
the present time.
How to make the Present Perfect Root:
Add to the Past Root of the verb.
a. If the Past root ends in a consonant, add .
b. If the past root ends in a vowel, add .
c. If the past root ends in , dont add anything.
LINKING VERBS

()+[Present Copula] [Complement]
For Present Coupula, see page 17 (Chapter 4. The Linking Verb).

You have become pretty.
() .
I have been sick.
) ( .
He has been grown (been big).
() .
They havent been in Hawler.
.
In the Present Perfect tense of the linking verb and intransitive verbs, the
additional after the Present Copula doesnt appear all the time.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
The Present Perfect tense of intransitive verbs is formed from the the Present Perfect Root
plus the Present Copulas.
Simple Verb
()+ [Present Copula][Present Perfect Root]
Complex/Compound Verb
()+ [Present Copula][Present Perfect Root] [Pre-Word]

You have left early.
) ( .
I have seated here.
) ( .
They havent understood.
) ( .
She has come.
.
1)
We have been stayed in Hawler.
.
2)
He has been stayed.
.

59

1) suffix always comes at the last position of the verb.
2) is inserted where two vowels conflict.

Some actions continuing in the present time also use the present perfect tense.

He is sitting.
.
He is lying down.
.
He is standing.
.
He is sleeping.
.
TRANSITIVE VERBS
1) Simple Verb
a. No Object, No Preposition
+[Past Tense Subjective BP][Present Perfect Root]
b. No Object, With Preposition
+[Present Perfect Root] [Past Tense Subjective BP][Prep.]
c. With Noun Object
+[Present Perfect Root] [Prep.] [Subjective BP][Object]

a. No Object
+[Present Perfect Root] [Subjective BP][Pre-Word]
b. With Object
+[Present Perfect Root] [Pre-Word] [Subjective BP][Object]

I have eaten (it).
. () .
* He has eaten (it).
. () .
I havent seen you.
. () .
I have told you.
. () .
He hasnt opened the door for you.
. .
He hasnt miss them.
. .
The Subjective BP of for the transitive verbs in the Present Perfect is .

60

FORMATION OF PAST PERFECT
The Past Perfect tense is used for an action that started and finished in the past.
In general, the Past Perfect tense is used for complex sentences, that consist of two
different past tenses, or for the subjunctive past tense:
To form the past perfect tense of a verb:
Add to the past root of the verb to make the past perfect root.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Simple Verb
[Subjective BP][Past Perfect Root]
Complex/Compound Verb
[Subjective BP][Past Perfect Root] [Pre-Word]

You had left early. .
I had seated here. .
They hadnt understood. .

1)
She had come. .
2)
We had been stayed. .
3)
He had been stayed. .
1) There is no subjective bound pronoun for the 3
rd
person singular subject (e.g. )
in this case.
2) suffix always comes at the last position of the verb.
3) is inserted where two vowels( & ) conflict.
TRANSITIVE VERBS

I had eaten (it).
. () .
He had eaten (it).
. () .
I hadnt seen you.
. () .
I had told you.
. () .
He hadnt opened the door for you.
. .
He hadnt miss them.
. .

61

10. IRREGULAR VERBS
There are several irregular verbs in Kurdish, whose conjugations follow neither the
intransitive rules nor the transitive rules.
There is no verb in Kurdish equivalent to the English verb to have. Kurdish expresses
possession through the following formula:
Present Tense
Without Object, Affirmative
+[Possessive Pronoun]
Without Object, Negative
With Object, Affirmative
[Possessive Pronoun][Object]
With Object, Negative
Past Tense

Without Object, Affirmative
Without Object, Negative
With Object, Affirmative
With Object, Negative

I We He
No
Object
Present affirm.
I have (it)

neg.
I don't have (it)

Past affirm.

I had (it)

neg.

I didn't have (it)

With
Object
Present affirm.

I have time

neg.

I don't have time

Past affirm.

I had time

neg.

I didn't have time

62

Other irregular verbs whose conjugations are similar to :
, , , , , etc.
Mostly, these verbs are related with ones feeling or possession.

Pres.
I feel hot
We feel hot
He feels hot

I don't feel
hot

We don't feel hot

He doesn't feel hot
Past
I felt hot

We felt hot

He felt hot

I didn't feel
hot

We didn't feel hot

He didn't feel hot

Pres
I'm cold
We are cold
He is cold

I'm not cold

We aren't cold

He isn't cold
Past

I was cold

We were cold

He was cold

I wasn't cold

We weren't cold

He wasnt cold

Pres

I'm hungry
We are hungry
He is hungry

I'm not hungry

We arent hungry

He isn't hungry
Past

I was hungry

We were hungry

He was hungry

I wasn't hungry

We werent hungry

He wasn't hungry

Pres
I'm thirsty
We are thirsty
He is thirsty

I'm not thirsty

We aren't thirsty

He isn't thirsty
Past

I was thirsty

We were thirsty

He was thirsty

I wasn't thirsty

We weren't thirsty

He wasn't thirsty

Present
I remember (it)
We
He

I don't remember (it)

We

He
Past

I remembered (it)

We

He

I didn't remember (it)

We

He
Present
With
Object

I remember that

We

He

I don't remember that

We

He
Past
No
Object

I remembered that

We

He

I didn't remember that

We

He

63

Present

I forget (it)

We

He

I don't forget (it)

We

He
Past

I forgot (it)

We

He

I didn't forget (it)

We

He
Present
With
Object

I forget that

We

He

I don't forget that

We

He
Past
No
Object

I forgot that

We

He

I didn't forget that

We

He
(LIKE) , (THINK) , (BE HAPPY)

Present

I like (it)

We

He

I don't like (it)

We

He
Past

I liked (it)

We

He

I didn't like (it)

We

He
Present

I'm happy

We

He

I'm not happy

We

He
Past

I was happy

We

He

I wasn't happy

We

He

(LIKE)

Present

I like (it)

We

He

I don't like (it)

We

He
Past

I liked (it)

We

He

I didn't like (it)

We

He
Present

I like apple

We

He

I dont like

We

He
Past

I liked apple

We

He

I didnt like

We

He

64

(WANT)

Present
I want (it)
We
He

I don't want (it)

We

He
Past
I wanted (it)
We

He
I didn't want (it)
We
He
Present

I want you

We

He

I don't want you

We

He
Past

I wanted you

We

He

I didn't want you

We

He
(LOVE)
Present

I love (it)

We

He

I don't love (it)

We

He
Past

I loved (it)

We

He

I didn't love (it)

We

He
Present

I love him

We

He

I don't love him

We

He
Past

I loved him

We

He

I didn't love him

We

He

(NEED)
Present
\
I need (it)
We

He

I don't need

We

He
Past

I needed

We

He

I didn't need

We

He
Present

I need you

We

He

I don't need

We

He
Past

I needed you

We

He

I didn't need

We

He

65

SPECIAL COMPOUND VERBS
There are some compound verbs which can embed their objects in their verb
conglomerate using the Izafe(linking vowel), .
a. You(ll) learn Kurdish.
.
b. You(ll) learn Kurdish.
.
c. I(ll) teach you English.
.
d. I(ll) teach you English.
.
e. I watch TV.
.
f. I visit my relative.
.
a & b have the same meaning.
c & d have the same meaning.
The object of the verbs, (to watch) and (to visit) is always
linked by .

66

11. PASSIVES
When an action is completed by someone or something other than the subject of the
sentence, the sentence is considered passive.
Active statement
He bought the book

Passive statement
The book was bought

Note that the passive statement cannot take an object and the passive verbs
conjugation always follows the intransitive rules.
FORMATION
The present passive stem is constructed from the Present Stem of transitive verb + .
[Subjective BP]+[Present Stem]
The past passive stem is constructed from Present Stem of transitive verb + .
[Subjective BP] +[Present Stem]

to send

to bring

to see
Present &
Future

Youll be sent The flower(ll be) is
brought
Youll be seen

Thisll not be sent They are going to be
brought
Well be seen
Past Simple

The book was sent The book was brought The book was seen

I was sent They were brought I was seen
Present Perfect

You have been sent You have been brought You have been seen
Past Perfect

We had been sent I had been brought He had been seen

67

IRREGULAR PASSIVES
VERBS WITH ENDING
As observed above(page 66), both the Present Passive and the Past Passive are normally
constructed from the Present Stem of the verb, but it is acceptable to use the Past Root
instead of the present stem.
Sometimes, the Past Root is even preferred to the present stem, especially when the
verb base (of the infinitive form) ends with .
Both present and past passive statements can be constructed from the Past Root.

(to study) (to choose, elect)
Using
Present Stem
Using
Past Root
Using
Present Stem
Using
Past Root
Present
Tense

Kurdish is
studied
Kurdish is
studied
He is elected He is elected
Past
Tense

Kurdish was
studied
Kurdish was
studied
He was elected He was elected
Also, if the verbs Present Stem ends with the letter , an extra consonant is added
to the present stem to induce a more comfortable pronunciation.
Present Past

You(ll) be seen You(ll) be seen You were seen You were seen
COMMON IRREGULARS
Although the passive voice is regularly and predictably formed from the vast majority of
verbs, these common verbs have irregularly formed passives:
A-STEM VERBS

Present Passive Past Passive
to do

It is done

They were done

to reach

It is reached

They were reached

to give

It is given

They were given

to drop

It is dropped

They were dropped

to take

It is taken

They were taken

68

O-STEM VERBS

to wash

It is washed

They were washed

to eat

It is eaten

They were eaten

OTHER IRREGULARS

to hold,
to seize

It is held

They were held

to say

It is said

They were said

These stories will be printed. .
This story was written 2 yrs ago.
. 2
The car will be washed. .
The key is stolen.
.
The book was read.
.
FACTITIVE VERBS
The factitive infinitive is formed from the present stem of an intransitive verb +.
The present stem of all such verbs ends with .
Intransitive Verb Present Stem Factitive Verb Present Stem

to be destroyed to destroy

to die to make someone die, kill

to reach to make reach, deliver

to understand
to make someone understand

I could make him
understand somehow.
.
Im going to demolish the
house and build a new one.
.

69

12 PREPOSITIONS PART II
Note that in most cases the preposition, is coupled with its corresponding (, ,
etc) postposition.

Time

At 4 oclock

At 4:35

At midnight

At lunchtime

At the same time

On April 21
st

21
On Monday

On Nawroz Day

On Friday afternoon

In 2010
2010
In summer

In the 17
th
Century

In the Middle Ages

In the morning

In the evening

Its quarter to ten
10
Ill see you next Monday.

They traveled last March.

People go for picnics during spring

During the 1980s

Aso traveled twice during this week

We lived in NY from 2003 to 2007
2007 2003
Wait until tomorrow

Nothing happened until 4 oclock
4
Dont open this box until I come back

70

Place

At the airport

At the end of the street

At home

At the hospital

At a conference

On the wall

On the floor

In a room

In London

In a garden

In a town

In a park

In a street

In a photo

In a mirror

In the water

In the sea

In the sky

In the newspaper

In the mountains

In my mouth

Between Ashty and Huda

Between winter and spring

Among the trees

Among the chairs

He traveled from Hawler to Suli.

Im from Kurdistan

( )
He goes to school

Turn to the left please

The house by the river

71

Way, Method
,
Its a letter from my friend

I borrowed a book from the library

An increase of 10%
10
5 km east from(of) Hawler
5
He came by car

A poem by Hemin, the poet

We see through the glass

The train is going through the tunnel

The water flows into the tank
through this pipe

POSITION PREPOSITIONS

She is looking out of the window.
.
She is walking across the countryard.
.
He is throwing some paper into the trash can.

.
He is throwing some paper onto the ground.
.
She is going to the library.
.
He is coming back from the library.
.
The paper is falling off the table.
.
She is walking away from the notice board.
.
She is walking towards the notice board.
.
She is walking up the stairs.
.
The flowers are growing along the wall.
.
He is walking down the steps.
.
He is looking over the balcony.
.
Th bush is outside the window.
.
The ribbon is around the basket.
.
The cassettes are inside the drawer.
.
He stands against the table.
.
The mug cup is underneath the table.
.
The table is near the fireplace.
.

72

The dried flowers are in the room.
.
The clock is between the desks.
.
The candle is on the desk.
.
The picture is over the desk.
.
The plant is on the top of the bookcase.
.
The plate is in the middle of the bookcase.
.
The books are at the bottom of the
bookcase.
.
The plates are above the books.
.
The cups are below the teapot.
.
The teapot is beside/next to the plate.
.
The magazines are in fron of the television.
.
The magazines are behind the television.
.
More Idioms:
Danielle is afraid of dogs.
.
I dont agree with you.
.
Azad was angry with Jwan.
.
I feel anxious about this journey.
.
Azad apologizes to Jwan.
.
She applied for the job.
.
He is ashamed of himself.
.
You asked for help.
.
Im busy with studying.
.
I bought the book for $10.
$10
We are close to winning.
.
He compares this with that.
.
A competes with B

Jwan complains about..
...
Azad congratulates for..
...
This house consists of 5 rooms.
.
This market is crowded with people.
.

73

She cuts the tomato with the knife.
.
He died of diabetes.
.
This is different from mine.
.
She has doubts about the project.
.
He dreams of his mom.
.
She wears (dresses in) Kurdish
costume.
.
This room is enough for us.
.
My house is full of guests.
.
We hope for a good life.
.
Karwan is very kind to Ashty.
.
Ashty is good at mathematics.
.
She is jealous of her friends dress.
.
We are grateful for your serving.
.
Wait for them.
.
We are surprised at the news.
.
He is tired of his job.
.
OTHER POSTFIXES
DIRECTIONAL NOUNS IN OR
Certain nouns become quasi-adverbial directional with the addition of or .
* is more common in Hawler and is more common in Sulemaniya.
* If the noun ends in a vowel, no or is followed.
Noun Adverb
home

home(ward)

room

into room

out

outward

market

to market

school

to school

74

POSTPOSED VERBAL COMPLEMENTS
For motion verbs(e.g. to go, to come, to leave), verbal complements can come after the
verbs and are linked by the linking vowel, \ .

Using Using linking vowel
Im going home

Im going to school

The linking vowel occurs for all persons in all tenses.
The inherent in the 2
nd
or 3
rd
person singular is always recovered before the
\ .

Present Past
Im going home.
.
I came out.
.
Youre going home.
.
You came out.
.
Hes going home.
.
He came out.
.
Were going home.
.
We came out.
.
Theyre going home.
.
They came out.
.

- Verbs:
I regained( ) consciousness. .
For ending verbs, the directional vowel \ is omitted.

Irregular Verbs:
He went to (the) market.
.
If the past verb conjugation of a motion verb ends in as shown above,
a may be infixed between the verb and the linking vowel, \ .

75

EXPRESSIONS OF TEMPORAL DURATION
PRESENT

[Statement] \ +[duration of the temporal event (for how long)]

With Simple Present Tense
Hes been here for 4 years.
.
Its been raining for several days.
.
Ive know it for a long time.
.

With Present Perfect Tense
Ive been sitting here for several hours.
.
It hasnt rained for several days.
.
Moms been cooking for 3 hours.
.
We havent seen them for 2 years.
.
PAST
Affirmative
[Past Continuous] ()+[duration of the temporal event (Time Expression)]
Negative
[Past Perfect] +[duration of the temporal event (Time Expression)]

Examples:
It had been raining for several days.
.
It hadnt rained for several days.
.
I hadnt seen him for almost 3 months.
.
I had known for a long time that.
.

76

13. SUBJUNCTIVES
THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
FORMATION RULES
The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem of the verb and the personal
suffixes. The modal marker for the subjunctive is (same as in the imperative form).
Affirmative: [Subjective BP][Present stem]
Negative: [Subjective BP][Present stem]
In complex or compound verbs, the prefix is optional, and when it is omitted the lack
of a modal prefix identifies the verb as subjunctive.

to go to be to open to call to receive

USAGES
The present subjunctive is used in the following instances:
INDEPENDENTLY
It is not dependent upon a preceding construction, as a deliberative (English should).

Should I come tomorrow?
(Subjunctive, not sure)
()
I will come tomorrow.
(Simple Present, Definitively coming)
) ( .

Should we open the door?
(Subjunctive)
) (
We will open the door.
(Simple Present)
) ( .

77

In literary style, the question maker, often introduces the construction.
Should he go to Sulemaniya?

LET ME, LET US
The present subjunctive is used in the 1
st
persons cohortative sentences (let me, lets). It
is often preceded by , or (Come on).
Come on, lets go!
, !
Come on, lets study!
, !
LET HIM, MAY IT BE
The present subjunctive is also used in the 3rd persons hortative sentences (let him, may
it be, etc.).
Let them sit back!
!
Oh, God, may it rain!
, !
Happy New Year!
!
May it be good for your health!
, !
For your health!
!
AS COMPLEMENT TO ALL VERBS
All verval complements of (want), (would like to), (need),
(can), (must) are in the subjunctive.
I want to go home.

Id like to go home.

I need to go home.

I can go home.

I must go home.

It is not necessary that you say.
.
She can see you.
.
Do you want to open it?

We dont want to write a letter.
.

78

AFTER BEFORE OR WITHOUT
The present subjunctive is used after a number of conjunctions like (before),
(without), etc.
Before he goes/went
..
Before you sit/sat down
..
Without speaking, she left.
, .
Without his/her seeing you
..
* (before) is always followed by the present subjunctive; the proper tense for
English translation is gained from context.
AFTER IF
The present subjunctive is used in the protasis of a possible conditional:
If you want to, you can.
, .
If he comes, well eat with him.
, .
If you study, youll pass.
, .
As long as I breathe, Ill serve my country.
, .
THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
FORMATION RULES
The past subjunctive is formed like the past perfect, but instead of the past tense of ,
the present subjunctive of is added.
INTRANSITIVE

Affirmative Negative Affirmative
1
st
person

2
nd
person

3
rd
person

79

TRANSITIVE
Without Preverbal Agent

With Preverbal Agent

Negative

Singular Singular Plural Singular Plural Plural
1
st
person
- -
2
nd
person
- -
3
rd
person
- -

Without Preverbal Agent

With Preverbal Agent

Negative

Singular Singular Plural Singular Plural Plural
1
st
person
-

-

2
nd
person
-

-

3
rd
person
-

-

USAGES
The past subjunctive is used in the following instances:
1) After all constructions that take subjunctive complements when the complement is
in the past
The men must have gone.
.
You must have seen those things.
.
Its not necessary for me to have seen it.
.

The conjunction is optional.

Its possible that it will rain.
(the present subjunctive)
.
Its possible that it (has) rained.
(the past subjunctive)
.

2) in past clauses after superlatives (note that a relative-clause antecedent modified
by a superlative is in the Indefinitive state, )

80

In this type of clause the subject of the relative clause must be the same as the
noun modified by the superlative. If the subjects of the main clause and of the
relative clause are different, the relative clause is not subjunctive.
He is the first person who has attempted it.
.
Hes the first person Ive seen in Hawler.

.
3) In past relative clauses after negatives (e.g. there isnt anyone who has) or
expressions with an essentially negative sense (e.g. there are few who have..)

.
There isnt anyone who hasnt read the book.
.
There are not many people who have not heard old Kurdish stories from grandma.

4) After (as though) in the past for hypothetical situation
.
As though they remembered something.

5) In the past protasis of a possible conditional
, .
If I had sacrificed my life for my son, he would finish his study.
HOW TO USE THE SUBJUNCTIVE
SIMPLE SENTENCE

Present Past
He makes me laugh./made me laugh.
. .
He made me laugh./didnt make..
. .
I want to go./wanted to go.
. .
I dont want to go./didnt want to go.
. .
We like to study./liked to study.
. .
We dont like to study./didnt like..
. .
He needs to eat./needed to eat.
.
.
.

81

He doesnt need to eat./He didnt..
. .
I can teach you./was able to teach..
. .
I cant teach you./I couldnt teach..
. .
Note that subjunctive complements remain the same while the main verb tenses
change.
The past tense of the verbs such as, (want), (like), takes the
past continuous form.

THE IRREALIS MOOD
The irrealis mood, which expresses an unfulfilled or unfulfillable contrafactual(contrary to
fact) statement, usually dependent upon an unrealized conditional, is identical to the past
continuous tense.
I couldnt have done anything else.
(even if I had wanted to)
.
Anybody would have known.
.
You could have come.
.
I could have helped you.
.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCE - TYPE I
It is possible to fulfill a condition which is given in the if-clause.

[Main Clause in Present](2), [Present Subjunctive]+(if)(1)

[Present Subjunctive]+(if)(2) [Main Clause in Present](1)

If you dont eat, youll get hungry.
, .
If you study, youll succeed.
, .
What will you do, if you pass the exam?

If I you need my help, I will help you.
.
If it rains, we cant go.
, .
If you wake up early, you wont be late.
,() .
If I see them, Ill greet him.
, .

82

Until you dont leave, I dont leave.
, .
When you bring the tree, Ill cut it.
, .
Its possible that it will rain.
.
I hope(wish) to be like you.
.

When you come (Im sure youre coming),
bring the books with you.
, .
When young people work,
country will be developed.
. ,
If young people work,
country will be developed.
. ,
Note that when the protasis is lead by or , the verb of the protasis takes
past simple tense.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCE - TYPE II
It is theoretically possible to fulfill a condition which is given in the if-clause.
[Main Clause in Present](2), [Past Subjunctive]+(if)(1)

[Past Subjunctive]+(if)(2) + [Main Clause in Present](1)

If he had money, he would buy the car.
(At the moment he has no money,
but still has a chance)
, .
If he ate, he would come soon.
(Im not sure if he ate or not)
, .
If he studied hard, he would pass.
(Im not sure if he studied though)
, .
If he came here, I would ask him.
(but hes not here yet)
, .
CONDITIONAL SENTENCE TYPE III
It is impossible to fulfill a condition which is given in the if-clause.
There are two ways to form this type of conditional sentence.
Method I
+Subjective BP+Past root+ \
Method II
Subjective BP++ Past root+ \
** In the second case (Method II) the prefix is optional.

83

INTRANSITIVE
METHOD I

1
st
person

2
nd
person

3
rd
person

METHOD II

1
st
person
() ()
2
nd
person
() ()
3
rd
person
()() () ()
TRANSITIVE
METHOD I
With Preverbal Matter

Negative

Plural Singular Plural Plural
1
st
person
- - - -
2
nd
person
- - - -
3
rd
person
- - - -
METHOD II
With Preverbal Matter

Negative

Plural Singular Plural Plural
1
st
person
- () - () - -
2
nd
person
- () - () - -
3
rd
person
- () - () - -

84

USAGE
In contrafactual (contrary to fact) conditional sentences, the protasis (the if clause)
contains a verb in the past conditional mood(conditional-type III), and in the apodosis
(the result clause or the main clause). The verb is in the irrealis(past continuous).

If you had waken up early,
you wouldnt have been late.
(You woke up late and was late to work.)
, .
If I had studied the lesson, I would have.
passed (I didnt pass.)
, .
If he had come yesterday,
he would have seen Azad.
, .
If you had sent the letter,
it would have arrived.
, .
If I had seen him, Id have greeted him.
(I didnt greet him.)
, .
If he had come, wed have eaten together.
(we didnt eat with him.)
, .
If I had come to Kurdistan, Id have
learned Kurdish. (I didnt learn Kurdish.)
, .
COMMON MODAL VERBS & ADJECTIVES
SHOULD:
PRESENT
Affirmative Negative
I should go.
. \ .
He should go.
. \ .
They should make dolma.
. .

Note:
I shouldnt go.

.
I shouldnt have gone.
.
() .
I dont have to go.
.

85

PAST (IRREALIS: WISHFUL THINGKING FOR THE PAST)
Affirmative Negative
I should have come early.
. .
He should have left.
. .
They should have known it.
.
.
.
.
You should have washed.
.
() .
.
.
You shouldn have said that.
. .

WISH & HOPE: , , , ,
FUTURE
I hope to be a teacher.
\ \ .
I hope I can go.
.
I hope I can see you.
.
I wish I had a car.
.
Id like to drink water.
(Im looking for water now.)
.

PRESENT
I wish I could fly.
) ( .
I wish I could go.
.
You wish you could see him.
.
I wish I had a car.
.
I wish I drank water.
(There is no water now.)
.
Its possible that it (has) rained.

.
I wish I were you.
.
.
You wish you did the work.
.
She wishes he studied the lesson.
(He didnt study and she feels sorry.)
.

86

I wish my mom came.
(but shes not here.)
() .
They wish school was closed.
.

I wish I had finished the work.
.
I wish I could have helped you.
.
I wish I could have helped you.
() .
I wish I had married him.
.
I wish he hadnt done that.
.

MUST:
PRESENT
I must go now.
.
We must not burn the food.
.
We must eat the food.
.
PAST
There must have been some food.
.
I must have visited him.
.

PERHAPS: ,
PRESENT
Perhaps he will come back tomorrow.
.
Maybe we will travel to America.
.
Maybe I will finish my work today.
.
PAST
Maybe he went to school.
.
Maybe they didnt like the food.
.

87

14. CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are joining words and are sometimes called connectives.
A conjunction may join words, phrases or clauses.
CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
Co-ordinate conjunctions join words that are the same part of speech: a noun with a noun;
an adjective with an adjective; and so on.
And But , Or
Examples:
Azad, Nawzad, and Sirwan came.
.
Danielle came to Kurdistan two years ago
and learned Kurdish.

.
Study or sleep.
.
In philosophy two things that are completely
equal or completely different cannot be
compared.

.
I asked her a lot, but she didnt answer me.
, .
I explained all the questions for him,
but he still doesnt understand.
,
.
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
Conjunctive adverbs are used to join two complet sentences that are very closely related
in meaning.

therefore, thus, as a result, hence

later, after
,
finally
,
however, nevertheless
/
otherwise
/
besides
/
anyway, anyhow

88

My mom is sick, so I couldnt
come to the party.
.
Anyhow, I want to study Kurdish
next year.
.
I woke up, after that washed my face,
after that changed my clothes, and
lastly went to college.
, ,
, .
We didnt go,
so she didnt come either.
. ,
Study, otherwise youll fail.
.
Besides Kurdish, I want to learn Farsi
and Arabic.
.
RELATIVE PRONOUN

Relative clauses in Kurdish are often, but not necessarily, introduced by the relative
pronoun (who, which, that). Generally speaking, the relative pronoun ka may be
omitted, particularly when it functions as the object of the verb in the relative clause. The
relative pronoun is rarely omitted when it functions as the subject of the verb in the
relative clause.

When I went to the market, I saw Dawt.
() .
Those books I bought yesterday are nice.
.
When I came, you werent at home.
, .
This is the flower he gave me.
.
When did you find out that shes married?

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
Subordinate conjunctions are used to join two ideas which otherwise would require two
separate sentences.
Subordinating conjunctions are generally formed as below:

) ( + + preposition

* The relative pronoun is optional.

89

COMMON SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Provided that, on condition that
(+ subjunctive)
()
Without
(+ present subjunctive)
()
Before

()
Before
()
After
()
In order that
()
Because, Since

Because of
,
..
Until

When
, , ,
Although, Even if
,

Examples:
I had slept until my mom came back.
.
Even though I was tired, I helped
him.
, () .
Even though he studied hard,
he didnt pass.
, .
In order that people like you, you
have to respect them.
.
Ahmad has become very rich
because he won a lottery.

.

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