The Astro Boy Essays: Osamu Tezuka, Mighty Atom, and the Manga/Anime Revolution

Introduction

The death of Osamu Tezuka on February 9, 1989, at the age of sixty, sent shock waves throughout Japan, especially among those raised in the postwar period on his manga and animation. Japan's much beloved and aged Shōwa emperor had passed away the previous month, but the emotion surrounding Tezuka's death seemed greater and resulted in an outpouring of not only grief, but endless media retrospectives and eulogies. On February 10, the day after Tezuka's death, Japan's prestigious national newspaper, the Asahi, ran a prominent editorial titled Mighty Atom's Message, urging younger artists to pick up the torch that Tezuka had dropped and to maintain the values symbolized by his most popular work. It noted that Japanese seemed to love comics far more than in other countries, and that foreigners often found this strange. After rhetorically asking why, it answered its own question:

It is because in other countries they did not have Osamu Tezuka. The postwar comics and animation culture of Japan would never have happened without him. He was the creator of both story-based manga and television anime, and the influence of his attractive and androgynous boy character, Atom, with his long eyelashes, is easy to detect, not only in boys' manga, but also in the protagonists of the now oh-so-popular girls' manga.¹

For most of his life Osamu Tezuka was largely ignored outside of Japan. It is only recently, with the Godzilla-like global rise of Japanese popular culture—and especially with the new overseas popularity of manga and anime—that his name has begun to slowly percolate into any sort of mainstream English consciousness. Tezuka's animated TV series, Mighty Atom— known as Astro Boy outside of Japan—achieved considerable popularity in the mid-sixties in North America and temporarily opened the gates for other Japanese TV-animation series, but Tezuka himself received little exposure. In the late 1990s and at the beginning of the new millennium, some of Tezuka's works began appearing in translation in English, but it is safe to say that most people outside of the manga-fan orbit have still never heard of them or of him, even today. There are, as of this writing, no books in the English world specifically on Tezuka, yet in Japan there are scores of books on him. In fact, the Japanese regard Tezuka one of the greatest people of the twentieth century, up there along with John F. Kennedy, Mahatma Gandhi, and the Beatles, and he is sometimes compared in the media with Leonardo da Vinci. There are many reasons for this chasmic difference in perception, but the biggest is the high status comics and animation enjoy in Japan and the low status they have until recently had in North American culture.

During his over-forty-year career, Tezuka created hundreds of stories and thousands of characters. Which raises the question: Why write a book focusing on Astro Boy/Mighty Atom and Tezuka, and not Tezuka and his entire canon? The answer to the first part is simple: Mighty Atom is Tezuka's best-known work, and it is the work that helped create the framework for the modern Japanese manga and anime industries. The answer to the second part is more complex and involves both a confession and a digression to explain how I came to write this book.

I did not grow up reading Mighty Atom manga or watching Astro Boy animation, and only came to know Tezuka's most famous work much later in life. I first went to Japan in the fall of 1965, at the age of fifteen. At that time, the first Mighty Atom television series was still being broadcast on the Fuji TV channel, and while I did watch television, it was not a show that particularly sticks in my memory. I could not yet understand Japanese, and it was a series designed for much younger children, so even if I had been a fan it would not have been very cool for me to admit it to my friends. But in addition to the TV series, I do recall seeing Mighty Atom–themed toys in stores, and especially Atom masks at temple festivals, so I was very aware of the popularity of the character. My real exposure to Mighty Atom came much later in life, when I was old enough to admit enjoying the stories and also old enough to appreciate what Tezuka had accomplished with them. In fact, I came to know Atom best after first knowing Tezuka's other, more adult works and after knowing Tezuka himself.

I began reading manga seriously around 1970, when I was attending a Japanese university in Tokyo and intensively studying the language. I lived in a dormitory my first year there, and I was astounded to see the huge weekly manga magazines that my roommates and other friends were reading (usually when they were supposed to be cracking their textbooks). At that time, manga were not the mass medium that they are today in Japan, but they had become a badge of pride for many university students, an important part of youth culture the way rock and roll was in the West. I began reading manga to find out what they were all about, and I quickly became hooked, especially when a friend named Shūichi Okada (later to become a JAL airline pilot) lent me his treasured volumes of Osamu Tezuka's cosmic epic, Hi no tori, or Phoenix, and implied that reading them would unlock many of the mysteries of life.

At about the same time, I began to dream of someday translating manga, or perhaps even writing something about them and introducing this interesting phenomenon to people outside of Japan. Years later, around the beginning of 1977, I met some like-minded friends, and four of us (two Americans and two Japanese) formed a short-lived group called Dadakai to translate and hopefully publish Japanese manga in English. We were young, naive, and idealistic, and one of the first manga that we decided to attempt to translate was Osamu Tezuka's multi-volume Phoenix. We approached Tezuka's company directly and, after explaining what we wanted to do, were granted permission. The Phoenix series would not be officially published until nearly thirty years later, but for me, and for Jared Cook, the other American in Dadakai, this was the beginning of a relationship with Tezuka that continued until his death, which included interpreting for him when he visited North America and helping him and his company on a variety of projects.

Tezuka was one of the few people I have known in my life whom I could describe as a true genius, and his influence on my way of thinking about things was profound. He was around twenty years older than me and a true intellectual—a man of vast knowledge and endless curiosity about the world and about life. And he was a one-man dream factory—always, always working, thinking up new ideas for manga and animation projects, writing, and drawing. For a Japanese of his era, he had far more contact with foreigners than most, but along with Jared, I am probably one of the few with whom he ever had serious discussions in his own language. This experience was interesting to him and fascinating for me, but at the time I frankly did not fully realize what a privilege it was. I do now.

Japanese postage stamp memorializing Osamu Tezuka and Mighty Atom. Issued on January 28, 1997, it is one of the first postage stamps ever to feature a manga artist or manga work.

Through Tezuka I was exposed to the Mighty Atom and Astro Boy character in a very basic way, but it took me a long time to get around to reading all the manga stories, as there seemed to be too many, and they seemed too childish and even too old-fashioned for my tastes at the time. On top of that, in those days I rarely watched television (and came by a VCR late in life), so I had little opportunity to watch the original animation series either. I frankly preferred Tezuka's newer work with a stronger narrative—the long-arc story manga that he pioneered and at which he excelled. But I loved the character design of Mighty Atom, and over the years the top of the refrigerator in my home began to accumulate more and more Mighty Atom figurines and paraphernalia.

In 1980 Tezuka decided to remake his original 1963 Mighty Atom TV series, to make it in color with a bigger budget and newer technology. Hoping to replicate his success at exporting the 1963 series to North America and other countries, he asked me to view videos of many episodes and write a report, advising him on what would and would not work from the perspective of a non-Japanese. I did my best, and although I never told him in so many words, for a variety of reasons the new series did not impress me as much as his older work.

In 1983 I wrote a book introducing Japanese manga to English-speaking people. Titled Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics, it had a translation of a short part of Phoenix and an introduction to manga history and Tezuka, and for that I did a cursory reading of most of the Mighty Atom manga series. In 1987, I also wrote Inside the Robot Kingdom: Japan, Mechatronics and the Coming Robotopia, about Japan's fascination with robots, and for that I again wrote briefly about Mighty Atom and formally interviewed Tezuka. Then, in 1990, I worked on the first published translation of Tezuka's 1953 work, Tsumi to batsu (Crime and Punishment) based on the novel by Fyodor Dostoevsky, and I became particularly fascinated by Tezuka's early work, when he was just developing his new narrative style.

In 1993, four years after Tezuka's death, I was drawn back into the Mighty Atom stories when a Japanese publisher asked me to write a commentary for a new anthology edition. In 1996, when I published another book on Japanese manga, Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga, I dedicated a large section of the book to Tezuka and his work, including Mighty Atom.

By 2002 the market for manga and animation in North America had begun to really explode. Mighty Atom paraphernalia covered not only the top of my refrigerator, but most of the rest of my apartment as well. When I was asked by the American publisher Dark Horse Comics if I would be interested in translating Tezuka's entire Mighty Atom manga series, I jumped at the chance. But this was no easy undertaking, since the whole series consists of twenty-three volumes of paperbacks, or around 5,000 pages. And literary translation, even of comic books, involves far more than simple reading. It requires a process of total immersion in the story and in the head of the author, in this case for over two years.

Translating what in English is titled the Astro Boy series allowed me to view Tezuka in an entirely different light. Tezuka worked on both the manga and animated series for decades and was deeply connected to and identified with the Mighty Atom character until his death in 1989. As a result, the Mighty Atom series is a window into the life and character of Osamu Tezuka himself and shows him not just as an artist, but as a man. And since Tezuka was one of the pioneers of modern manga and anime, the story of the Mighty Atom series and Tezuka's relationship to it is also a way to understand the development of these new media in Japan.

For years, people have suggested that I write a book about Tezuka, but I have always felt that it would not be possible to do him or readers justice in one volume. This is partly because Tezuka was such a productive and complex individual, and because his career and influence spans so many diverse areas. But it is also because there is such a huge gap in awareness of him between Japan and the English-speaking world. Any single book on Tezuka that tries to catalog his entire life and work by default becomes huge. For non-Japanese, it would also be filled with unfamiliar manga and anime titles, names, and references. In compiling them all, I know that I would feel overwhelmed, and so, I fear, would the readers.

Writing a book about Astro Boy/Mighty Atom, on the other hand, is a wonderful way to introduce not only a fascinating manga story and anime series, but also to introduce Osamu Tezuka himself, since he created it over so many years, and since it remains so closely associated with him. In this book, The Astro Boy Essays, it is my sincere hope that readers will be able to enjoy learning about not only a fascinating manga and anime character, but also about the fascinating relationship between that character and the artist who created him.

Before concluding, some housekeeping details are in order. The character and the work known as Tetsuwan Atomu, or Mighty Atom, in Japan, is known as Astro Boy in the English-speaking world. For historical purposes in this book, however, it is necessary to distinguish between the original Japanese work and the English-language version. In marketing Mighty Atom today in Japan, the highly awkward and double-jointed Astro Boy/Tetsuwan Atomu logo is sometimes used, but for orthographic and aesthetic reasons I have decided that it would not be practical here. For the book title I have used The Astro Boy Essays, and I earnestly pray that purists will forgive any confusion that may arise and kindly keep their arrows in their quivers until they have read whole the book.

There is great debate, even in Japan, over what should be included in Tezuka's Mighty Atom manga canon, especially over which edition of his manga collections is most authoritative. For this book, the main source in discussing the manga series is the twenty-three volume 1999–2000 Akita Shoten Sunday Comics edition of Tetsuwan Atomu. When referring to specific episodes in the Atom manga and anime series, I have used my own English translations, but an appendix in the back of the book shows the original Japanese titles, as well as the American Astro Boy titles, for both the manga and the anime.

On a minor note, I should point out that long vowels in Japanese are represented in the text with macrons, except for common place names. The letter n has been used to romanize the Japanese syllabic n, except where official spellings of company names such as Asahi shimbun require the letter m. All dollar values in this book refer to U.S. dollars. Also, Japanese names are presented in Western order of family name last. While this may be heretical in the academic world, for a general audience it is the most practical order, and I thus beg indulgence of purists. In addition, I have tried to use Japanese character names rather than the creatively translated English names with which many American fans of the 1963 Astro Boy animation series are familiar. I have provided a list of some of these names in the book for reference.

Finally, this book has been in the works for many years and I could not have completed it without the help of many people. For interviews, I would like to thank Shawne Kleckner, Minoru Kotoku, Fred Ladd, Fred Patten, Yusaku Sakamoto, Osamu Tezuka, Yoshiyuki Tomino, and Eiichi Yamamoto. At Tezuka Productions, Takayuki Matsutani, Minoru Kotoku, Haruji Mori, and Yoshihiro Shimizu were unstinting in their support. Hiromasa Horie and Masato Ishiwata were particularly obliging of my need for last minute assistance in scanning rare cover images and retrieving old videos. Satoshi Ito of Mushi Productions, Osamu Kawamura of Matsuzaki Productions, and Takayuki Furuta of fuRo, were extremely helpful in obtaining select images. Chris Warner of Dark Horse Comics and Toren Smith of Studio Proteus helped make it possible to translate Tezuka's Mighty Atom/Astro Boy manga series, which in turn helped motivate me to write this book. For agreeing to read my early-stage mangled prose and render sage advice, Jared Cook and Leonard Rifas deserve special mention; Fred Ladd helped greatly by checking Chapter 5. A tip of the hat to Keiko Tokioka for video dubbing, to Ken Ogawa for supplying me with valuable information and books, to Raymond Larrett for visual advice, to Yuki Ishimatsu for research advice, and to Linda Pettibone, Anne Christensen, and Norm and Marcia and Julianna Degelman for assorted Astro Boy paraphernalia. My undying gratitude goes to my dear, dear friends Jō and Nanae Inoue, who over the years never failed to send me relevant newspaper clippings and videos, Jō tragically passing away suddenly just after mailing me a particularly useful batch. At Stone Bridge Press, thanks to the entire staff for help under a tight publishing schedule. For moral support and tolerance of my tardiness, a Japanese-style bow to old friend and publisher Peter Goodman. For editing, thanks to Nina Wegner. For book design, thanks to Linda Ronan. And thanks, last but not least, to my dear parents for their support, and to my wife and the flame of my heart, Fiammetta Hsu, who not only indulges my Astro Boy fetish, but wholeheartedly endorses it (and also helped in the laborious checking of the book's appendices).

FREDERIK L. SCHODT

San Francisco, California, 2007