History of the Bronze Age Habitation

Kakucs-Turján Mateusz Jaeger, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor, Robert Staniuk (eds.) Kakucs-Turján a Middle Bronze Age multi-layered fortified settlement in Central Hungary Mateusz Jaeger, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor, Robert Staniuk (eds.) The Kakucs-Turján archaeological site was investigated by a Polish-Hungarian-German research team of archaeologists and various specialists. This volume contains the first, preliminary results of their work, giving the reader an insight into the complex history of the Bronze Age settlement and its economic activities as reflected in the multi-layered stratigraphy of the site. The currently analysed materials from Kakucs-Turján may help to indicate the basic parameters of the development and functioning of the Middle Bronze Age Vatya culture; on the one hand strongly based on local tradition, on the other contextualized within a wider network covering the Carpathian Basin. In Kommission bei Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH SAO SPEŚ 18 Studien zur Archäologie in Ostmitteleuropa Studia nad Pradziejami Europy Środkowej 18 Studien zur Archäologie in Ostmitteleuropa Band / Tom 18 · Studia nad Pradziejami Europy Środkowej Kakucs-Turján a Middle Bronze Age multi-layered fortified settlement in Central Hungary Mateusz Jaeger, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor, Robert Staniuk (eds.) In Kommission bei Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn 2018 Studien zur Archäologie in Ostmitteleuropa Studia nad Pradziejami Europy Środkowej Band / Tom 18 Herausgegeben von / Redaktorzy Johannes Müller, Kiel Janusz Czebreszuk, Poznań Sławomir Kadrow, Kraków The publication was financed by Distribution Translation Editor DTP & technical editor Cover design ISBN Printed by National Science Center of Poland – project no. 2012/05/B/HS3/03714 Dr Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn Szymon Nowak and Authors Mateusz Jaeger Justyna Nowaczyk Ralf Opitz 978-3-7749-4149-6 (Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn) Totem.com.pl © Authors 2018 No part of the book may be, without the written permission of the authors: reproduced in any form (print, copy, CD, DVD, the Internet or other means) as well as working through, reproduced or distributed CONTENTS Janusz Czebreszuk, Johannes Müller, Preface from series’ editors ............................................................. 7 Preface .......................................................................................... 9 Sławomir Kadrow Mateusz Jaeger, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor, Robert Staniuk KAKUCS ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION – THE PROJECT AND SCIENTIFIC AIMS Mateusz Jaeger, Wiebke Kirleis, Chapter 1. Kakucs Archaeological Expedition ................................. 13 Viktória Kiss, Gabriella Kulcsár, Johannes Müller, Robert Staniuk, Nicole Taylor, SITE TOPOGRAPHY AND STRATIGRAPHY Ákos Pető, Gábor Serlegi, Jakub Niebieszczański, Marianna Molnár, Chapter 2. Report on the geoarchaeological survey of Kakucs-Turján site ....................................................................... 25 Mateusz Jaeger, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor Jakub Niebieszczański, Ákos Pető, ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH-PRELIMINARY RESULTS Chapter 3. Geoarchaeological and non-invasive investigations of Gábor Serlegi, Iwona Hildebrandt- the site and its surroundings ............................................................ 43 Radke, Joanna Galas, György Sipos, Dávid Gergely Páll, Alexandru Onaca, Waldemar Spychalski, Mateusz Jaeger, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor, Gábor Márkus Gabriella Kovács Mateusz Jaeger Chapter 4. Thin section soil micromorphological results ................. 73 Chapter 5. Excavations in Kakucs-Turján 2013-2016. Methodology, documentation and excavation techniques ...................................... 93 Mateusz Jaeger, Robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor Chapter 6. History of Bronze Age Habitation ................................... 97 Chapter 7. Finds ...............................................................................119 Erika Gál 7.1. Preliminary results concerning the Middle Bronze Age (Vatya culture) bone tools from Kakucs-Turján, Central Hungary ....................119 Robert Staniuk 7.2 Preliminary results of pottery analysis from Kakucs-Turján .........137 Anna Zsófia Biller SPECIAL ANALYSIS Chapter 8. Archaeozoological results of the pits from Kakucs-Turján ....159 Sofia Filatova, Chris Gissel, Dragana Filipović, Wiebke Kirleis Mateusz Jaeger Chapter 9. The plant economy at the Bronze Age site of Kakucs-Turján: first archaeobotanical results ...............................175 KAKUCS-TURJÁN – BETWEEN LOCAL TRADITION AND INTERREGIONAL CONTACTS Chapter 10. Open communities – enclosed spaces. Kakucs-Turján settlement in the context of local tradition and interregional relations .....191 Mateusz Jaeger, Robert Staniuk, The catalogue of archaeological features .......................................213 Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole Taylor Appendix 1 .................................................................................... CD Appendix 2 ....................................................................................241 Preface from series’ editors The following volume addresses the topic which is intensively covered in the ‘Studien zur Archäologie in Ostmitteleuropa/Studia nad Pradziejami Europy Środkowej’ series – Bronze Age settlement archaeology, especially the subject of fortified settlements. The subject of fortified settlements and the various aspects related to their formation and functioning during European Bronze Age was covered in conference proceedings (volumes 5 and 9), a monograph (volume 17), as well as extensive reports on specific sites (the Únětice settlement in Bruszczewo; volumes 2, 6 (1 and 2), 13 and 14). The following volume summarizes the first stage of Polish-Hungarian-German interdisciplinary research of the KakucsTurján settlement located in Central Hun- gary. Although the settlement was mostly related to Middle Bronze Age Vatya culture, it provided evidence of older, i.e. Early Bronze Age habitation. Excavations provided evidence of a complex stratigraphy related to centuries of habitation. Apart from stratigraphic information the site provided rich amount of archaeological material representing different types of material culture. The presented volume summarizes the preliminary results of the archaeological and specialist analyses of the excavated archaeological material. It is the opinion of series’ editors that it provides valuable input in studies of the dynamics of the communities inhabiting one of the key regions of the European Bronze Age – the middle Danube basin. Janusz Czebreszuk • Johannes Müller • Sławomir Kadrow Preface Multi-layered and fortified settlements are one of the most characteristic features of the Middle Bronze Age in the Carpathian Basin, especially the area of present-day Hungary. The extensive size of such settlements is often a logistical and financial challenges for modern archaeology. Despite the organizational challenges, studying such settlements provides invaluable information regarding the development of local Bronze Age communities. One way of overcoming challenges related to studying multi-layered fortified settlements is by forming extensive scientific co-operations. The presented volume results from the collaboration of many people. The Polish-Hungarian-Germany scientific project aiming at studying the settlement in Kakucs-Turján was a collaboration of researchers from the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Budapest and the University of Kiel. The research undertaken between 2013 and 2017 involved both field work and data-processing, which extended beyond the work of archaeologists and included specialists from other fields, students, sometimes simply friends from various institutions in Poland, Hungary and Germany. Participation of such a large group of people coming from different personal backgrounds and representing different scientific practices and the exchange of experiences and knowledge is one of the main successes of the project. We would like to express our gratitude for all the work and help we received from everyone involved personally or simply supporting us throughout this journey. Special thanks go to the official representatives of the region – István Szalay – the mayor of Kakucs between 2013 and 2014; and Mária Toma Kendéné – the mayor of Kakucs since 2014. It is impossible not to mention the relentless organizational and technical support from István Greman and Pál Kulcsár, whom we would like to say thank you. The scientific potential of the KakucsTurján settlement exceeds our current state of knowledge. We hope to continue our scientific project and work on other documented finds. The results of such works will be published in the upcoming volumes of Studien zur Archäologie in Ostmitteleuropa/Studia nad Pradziejami Europy Środkowej series. Mateusz Jaeger • Gabriella Kulcsár • Nicole Taylor • Robert Staniuk ChAptEr 6 History of the Bronze Age Habitation Mateusz Jaeger (Poznań), Robert Staniuk (Kiel), Johannes Müller (Kiel), Gabriella Kulcsár (Budapest), Nicole Taylor (Kiel) 1. Introduction In the course of the exploration of trenches 1, 2 and 3 (which took place in 2013-2016) researchers recorded a complex stratigraphic pattern which documents the history of settlement at the site from the late Early Bronze Age (i.e. the end of the third millennium BC; ca. 2200/2100-2000/1900 BC) to the end of the Middle Bronze Age (Koszider horizon; ca. 1500/1450 BC). The remnants representing particular stages during which the area was used tend to differ substantially in terms of their state of preservation. A portion of the features associated with early settlement phases has been preserved only fragmentarily, therefore reliable determination of their function and reconstruction of the entire structures they had once formed is not feasible. These limitations are due to the fact that the excavated trench was situated in an optimal relation to the salient magnetic anomalies, the latter being largely associated with one, best-preserved settlement phase, i.e. remains of a younger Vatya house. Understandably, given such a location of the trench, a part of the younger and earlier features reveal merely a fraction of potential structures whose extent most likely did not overlap with the outline of the aforesaid building. In general, the arrangement of the documented layers and archaeological features is a record of successive phases of settlement, which were correlated with relative chronological periods for the Bronze Age in Hungary. 2. Harris matrix and Bayesian calibration As is unsurprising for a tell-like settlement, wherein different events and processes of levelling, destruction, re-building and change of function could have taken place, the reconstruction of site processes and depositional processes at Kakucs-Turján is a constant challenge. In order to address this challenge a Harris matrix was produced integrating the con- texts and features of trench 1 and 2 as well as the categories of contexts (cf. Appendix 1). The Harris matrix allowed identification of 11 habitation phases at the site Kakucs-Turján, which were later extended by an additional phase 12 (Migration period) identified during excavation season 2017. history of the Bronze Age habitation 97 Table 1. Phasing of the Kakucs-Turján settlement, duration of dated phases, general chronology of the Hungarian Bronze Age and the absolute dating of particular periods Kakucs phases (see Appendix 1) Absolute dura�on (1 sigma) Hungarian Bronze Age periods Hungarian Bronze Age periods cal BC (Fischl et al. 2015) Kakucs 1 NA EBA1-2 2600-2200/2100 Kakucs 2 NA EBA3 2200/2100-2000/1900 Kakucs 3 NA EBA3/MBA1 2000/1900 Kakucs phases Kakucs(see 4 fig. 1) NA Kakucs 5 NA Kakucs 6 1871/1778-1866/1769 BC Kakucs 7 1865/1762-1865-1751 BC Kakucs 8 1863/1746-1862/1742 BC Kakucs 9 1861/1736-1862/1728 BC Kakucs 10 1860/1696-1859/1692 BC Kakucs 11 1860/1680-1859/1660 BC Kakucs 12 NA MBA1 2000/1900-1500/1450 MBA2 MBA3 In conclusion, the arrangement of the documented layers and archaeological features is a record of 11 successive phases of settlement, which were dated with 12 AMS-14C dates (see p. 115-116). Using these 14C dates and Bayesian statistics, a model of the absolute chronology of the phases was developed (Fig. 26). The typochronological evidence and available, existing models of the absolute chronology of the Hungarian Bronze Age periods confirm the Bayesian model constructed for Kakucs-Turján. The results are summarized in Table 1. As follows from the above, the documented stratigraphic array offered – upon examination – the evidence of distinct events and processes which took place Migra�on period NA within a relatively brief time-frame that was characterized by the same material culture, and therefore tallied with one “Bronze Age period”. It should also be stressed that the youngest phase in which the area of the settlement was in use (phase 12), manifesting in pits associated with the Migration period, was documented solely in zone C of the settlement (see Jaeger et al. Kakucs Archaeological Expedition, in this volume) in the course of the 2017 season, and for this reason it is not discussed more broadly in this study. As for trenches 1-3, they did not yield any features and finds confirming settlement taking place beyond the late Middle Bronze Age (Appendix 1). 3. Stratigraphic record of settlement phases at the Kakucs-Turján site The following part of this chapter addresses those features and cultural strata of particular settlement phases which appear to be the most important towards building an understanding of how settlement proceeded in the studied area of the site. 3. 1. Early Bronze Age The earliest documented stage of human activity in the site area is reflected by remnants dated by means of stratigraphy and 98 typochronology of pottery to the middle 3rd millennium and the turn of the 2nd millennium BC. Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor Kakucs phase 1 pit posthole stakehole ancient humus 0 1 2 3 4m Fig. 1. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 1. Fig. 2. KEX13-15: 14167 (phase 1 – Early Bronze Age 1-2) during excavations. Layer of light grey ash is visible (photo: M. Jaeger). Phase Kakucs 1 – Early Bronze Age 1-2 At the lowest level of the stratigraphic array, researchers found few archaeological features (Fig. 1). Apart from fairly small-diame- ter postholes, there were two pits (KEX13-15: 14167, KEX13-15: 141568), containing pottery and animal bones. In the case of feature 14167, a special function of the pit may be conjectured, since it had a distinctive, four- history of the Bronze Age habitation 99 Fig. 3. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 2. Kakucs phase 2 0 1 2 3 4m pit ancient humus Fig. 4. KEX13-15: 13153 (phase 2 – Early Bronze Age 3) (photo: M. Jaeger). sided outline and contained a considerable amount of ash from an unknown species of grass (Fig. 2). The aforementioned postholes did not combine into any arrangement that could be reconstructed. 100 Phase Kakucs 2 – Early Bronze Age 3 The younger phase of EBA settlement was reflected in a relatively high quantity of easily distinguishable pits, from which Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor researchers recovered mainly pottery and animal bones (Fig. 4). The pits in question (KEX13-15: 13153, 13156, 13157, 13159, 13161, 14164, 14165, 14166; Fig. 5) differed in depth and form. A grinding stone was discovered in pit KEX13-15: 13156. However, no grains were detected in the soil sampled from the pit. The upper sections of the fillings of two pits (KEX13- 15: 13157, 13159) contained a particularly high number of charcoal pieces and ash; presence of the latter is likely to have been due to the slightly younger feature KEX13-15: 13158 (phase 3)—interpreted as a hearth—which was superimposed over and placed between the two pits. This feature consisted of a layer of smoothed clay which had undergone extensive secFig. 5. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 3. Kakucs phase 3 debris floor hearth oven pit ancient humus 0 1 2 3 4m Fig. 6. KEX14-16: 100004 - oven structure with an adjacent pit corresponding to the Early to Middle Bronze Age transition (photo: r. Staniuk). history of the Bronze Age habitation 101 Fig. 7. KEX14-16: 100016 – hearth corresponding to the Early to Middle Bronze Age transition (photo: r. Staniuk). Fig. 8. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 4. Kakucs phase 4 filling ancient humus ondary burning; it reached several centimetres in thickness and was roughly oval in shape. It is probable that some of the ash and charcoal produced as the hearth was being used found its way into the fills of pits KEX13-15: 13157 and KEX 13-15: 13159. Hearth KEX13-15: 13158 may have 102 been associated with preparation of food, given that the upper part of the infill in pit 13159 also yielded charred fragments whose structure resembled bread (see Filatova et al. The plant economy at the Bronze Age site of Kakucs-Turján: first archaeobotanical results, in this volume). Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor 3.2. Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age transition Phase Kakucs 3 - Early Bronze Age 3 / Middle Bronze Age 1 Archaeological remains discovered at the stratigraphic level corresponding with the late EBA were less numerous than those discussed above, yet a more or less definite function can be still attributed to some of them (Fig. 5). In total, 4 pits were documented (KEX13-15: 13154, KEX14-16: 100017, 100029, 110004). The fill of the pits also turned out to contain both pottery and animal bones. Substantial amounts of ash and charcoal were also discovered in pit KEX14-16: 130001. The latter was stratigraphically linked to feature KEX14-16: 100004, whose most likely function was that of an oven (Fig. 6). The positions of these features as well as the proximity of a hearth (KEX14-16: 100016), suggest that they are the remains of an unspecified dwelling structure (Fig. 7). This hypothesis is further supported by the discovery of the aforementioned feature KEX13-15: 13158 as well as features KEX14-16: 100002 and KEX14-16: 100007: fragments of an unfired clay floor and debris, respectively. However, the surviving arrangement of features does not enable conclusive determination of whether they represent the remains of one or more buildings dating to the EBA. Compared with the remnants of phase 2, the discussed section of stratigraphic layers illustrates a perceptible change in how the studied area of the settlement was developed for use as the remains of buildings appeared (hearths, debris and fragments of floors) in the space which had originally featured multi-purpose pits. Thus, the investigated part of the site provided evident proof of settlement continuity as the EBA transitioned into the MBA (late Nagyrév and early Vatya), but the continuity cannot be considered complete, since the locations of younger features do not coincide with the older ones. 3.3. Middle Bronze Age Phase Kakucs 4 – Middle Bronze Age 1 In light of available stratigraphic data phase 4 marks the onset of a new spatial development in the site area (Fig. 8). In the studied section, research identified a layer (KEX14-16: 90024), whose probable purpose was to even out a natural dip in the Fig. 9. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 5. Kakucs phase 5 floor pit posthole stakehole wall debris ancient humus 0 1 2 3 4m history of the Bronze Age habitation 103 Fig. 10. KEX13-15: 12123, a hearth situated at floor level (phase 5 – Middle Bronze Age 1 (photo: M. Jaeger). Fig. 11. KEX13-15: 12134, clay object situated outside the house (phase 5 – Middle Bronze Age 1) (photo: M. Stróżyk). 104 Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor terrain and thus prepare a site for the construction of a stable and relatively large building (earlier Vatya house / phase 5) Phase Kakucs 5 – Middle Bronze Age 1 The stratigraphic level corresponding to the adopted settlement phase 5 yielded a substantial and diverse pool of archaeological features associated with the first Vatya culture house (Fig. 9). The remains of the building, which was estimated to have measured at least 10 x 6 m, were comprised in the first place of a layer of yellowish, thicker clay (KEX13-15: 11104, 12121; KEX14-16: 90008, 90020). In one of the grid squares in trench 1 (square 38), layer 12121 contained a smoothed and frequently burnt surface (KEX13-15: 12122, 12123) whose thickness reached several centimetres (Fig. 10). It was concluded that this portion of the clay layer had been a hearth, which had originally been situated at floor level. In several cases, the floor layer was penetrated by postholes (postholes KEX13-15: 12143, 12146, 12147). The remaining documented postholes were stratigraphically related only with the earlier layer of ancient humus. The pattern of all phase 5 postholes does not allow their function in the building to be determined. Most likely, a number of postholes in the northern section of trench 1 were associated with the structure of one of the house’s shorter walls, whereas the holes situated in the centre – originally located inside the house – should be expected to have shored up the structure for stability. Remnants of the floor were accompanied by layers of debris; they were identified only along the edges of the reconstructed outline of the building. The debris consisted of fragments of daub and clay, the latter displaying various degrees of secondary burning. In several cases, the pieces of daub bore the imprints of wooden structural elements. Until a separate analysis concerned with daub and the impressions preserved in it is completed, no definite conclusions can be made as to the type of clay-wood structure of the house’s walls. In the discussed stratigraphic section, a unique feature situated near the house was detected. The feature KEX13-15: 12134 was comprised of three elements. The first of those was a perfectly circular pit, filled with large amounts of ash and charcoal. This fill was “capped’ by a large, thick-walled clay bowl, made rather shoddily from a daub-like material. Deposited in the bowl were numerous fragments of an artefact which could preliminarily be reconstructed as a thick clay plate, honFig. 12. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 6. history of the Bronze Age habitation 105 Fig. 13. KEX14-16: 90004 – example of a pit cutting through the house layers (drawing: r. Staniuk) KEX14-16: 110002 108,44 m a.s.l. 108,44 m a .s.l. KEX14-16: 30006F KEX14-16: 100001 KEX14-16: 100001 KEX14-16: 90004 KEX14-16: 130006 KEX14-16: 130006 0 50cm Fig. 14. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 7. Kakucs phase 7 0 1 2 3 4m filling eycombed with ca 0.5 cm holes. In brief, the plate resembled a kind of grate. Both the pit and the bowl contained numerous sherds and charred grains (see Filatova et al. The plant economy at the Bronze Age site of Kakucs-Turján: first archaeobotanical results, in this volume). The composition of vegetal macroremains suggests a function associated with small-scale crop processing rather than a cooking activity. The excep- 106 tional form of the clay artefacts, the care taken to excavate the perfectly round pit, and the clay figurine found in the pit legitimate the conjecture that the entire structure served a special, though as yet unspecified function. Feature KEX13-15: 12134 is scheduled to undergo full reconstruction and separate analysis at a later stage of work on the finds from Kakucs-Turján. Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor Fig. 15. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 8 Kakucs phase 8 floor oven posthole wall pit debris hearth fill 0 1 2 3 4m Fig. 16. KEX13-15: 70046, an oven discovered along the reconstructed course of the wall of the younger Vatya house (phase 8, Middle Bronze Age 2) (photo: M. Stróżyk). history of the Bronze Age habitation 107 Fig. 17. KEX 14-16: 50015 – oven structure in the SW part of the house: pre- (left) and post-exploration (right) (photo: N. taylor). Fig. 18. KEX 13-15: 80047 – remains of the hearths found inside the house (photo: M. Jaeger) Phase Kakucs 6 – Middle Bronze Age 1 (1871/1778-1866/1742 BC)1 Phase 6 is the stage when the first Vatya house was destroyed (Fig. 12). In this stratigraphic section, researchers identified a total of 11 pits, which were much smaller and less regular than the EBA pits. Some of them (KEX13-15: 12137; KEX14-16: 90004, 90013, 100024) cut into the floor of the phase 5 house and the levelling layer KEX14-16: 90024 (Fig 13). Due to the ideal state of in situ preservation of the aforementioned feature KEX13-15: 12134 which accompanied the first Vatya house, it seems that the build1 Absolute values are indicated where available based on the Bayesian modelling of the KakucsTurján chronology (cp. Fig. 26 and Table 2). 108 ing was abandoned, but not destroyed as result of a single event. It is likely that settlement activity in that space ceased, leading to gradual deposition of the layer in which the previously mentioned pits were dug. Their presence attests on the one hand to a temporary lapse in construction activity, and on the other offers an indication that the space was assessed differently in terms of its usability. The subsequent building was erected in that area of the settlement only when the ground had been prepared (see below: phase 7). Phase Kakucs 7 – Middle Bronze Age 2 (1865/1762-1865-1751 BC) Just as in the phase 4 level, this component of the stratigraphy is indicative of a sec- Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor Fig. 19. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 9 Kakucs phase 8 and 9 debris floor oven posthole wall pit debris hearth fill 0 1 2 3 4m Fig. 20. KEX13-15: 60033 – tile-like clay objects possibly originating from the house’s roof (photo: M. Jaeger). history of the Bronze Age habitation 109 ond settlement hiatus in the researched part of the site (Fig. 14). Again, this cessation is reflected in the presence of a levelling layer which simultaneously became the base for a younger Vatya house in Kakucs-Turján; the best preserved one, in fact. However, unlike the phase 4 layer this general fill layer was detected throughout the studied area. Phase Kakucs 8 - Middle Bronze Age 2 (1863/1746-1862/1742 BC) Phase 8 strata encompass the lowermost parts of the structure and furnishings of the younger Vatya house (Fig. 15). Together with layers corresponding to the period when the building collapsed (phase 9), this part of the stratigraphic array is the most distinct and easily readable; in all likelihood, the features and layers of phases 8 and 9 are those which were captured on the map of magnetic anomalies as a discernible outline of a building (see Niebieszczański et al. Geoarchaeological and non-invasive investigations of the site and its surroundings, in this volume). In trench 1, it was possible to identify a relatively poorly preserved, but nonetheless discernible, continuous layer which was interpreted as the remnants of the lowermost segment of a wall. The layer in question (KEX13-15: 80048) survived in fragments both along the shorter, northern wall of the house and along the western wall (the fragment being also visible in trenches 2 and 3). In a small section, layer KEX13-15: 80048 was preserved as two parallel lines, probably associated with a ‘sandwich-like’ type of wall construction where a wooden frame was covered on both sides with clay. The wooden structure is likely to have been put in place using timber elements of limited diameter. This conjecture seems to be supported by the fairly narrow space between the surviving clay layers and the dimensions of the charred fragments of wood found within feature KEX13-15: 80058. An oven was also discovered along the reconstructed course of the northern, shorter wall of the house (KEX13-15: 70046) (Fig. 16). Given the stratigraphic circumstances, it would seem that the oven had been positioned in line with the wall, i.e. a part of it stuck out beyond the wall. The oven itself was relatively well-preserved, taking the form of a circular platform, ca. 110 cm in diameter. The structure consisted of a layer of clay, ca. 20 cm thick and marked by extensive exposure to secondary fire. The outer clay layer had been smoothed, but no particular elements forming the edges of the smooth surface were noted. Underneath the clay structure there was a shallow pit (KEX13-16: 10092), containing a large amount of charcoal and ash; also, in the upper part of the pit fill, a relatively Fig. 21. KEX14-16: 40003 - remnant of a collapsed wall and a shelf (photo: N. taylor). 110 Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor Fig. 22. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 10. Kakucs phase 10 0 1 2 3 4m filling high quantity of larger sherds was encountered. Despite having made profile cuts in the oven structure, the obtained stratigraphic picture did not provide an insight into a potential functional link between the pit and the oven. It seems likely that at some point the users decided to put the clay platform, i.e. the oven proper, above where a fire previously was lit in an ordinary hollow in the ground (Fig. 18). A second oven was discovered in the southern part of the building (KEX14-16: 50015; Fig. 17). However, its poor preservation precluded any reconstruction of its original form. It may have been an earlier feature which was partly dismantled while the dwelling was still being used. The preservation of feature KEX13-15: 70046 warrants the conjecture that if the oven had been left intact, its structural detail would have been possible to document. As it was, researchers were only able to identify a fragment of smoothed surface which resembled its equivalent from feature KEX1315: 70046. In the central part of the building, relatively close to one another, there were also two smaller, roughly oval features interpreted as hearths (both designated as KEX13-15: 80047, located in squares 38 and 45 in trench 1; Fig. 18). Just as with the previously described oven KEX13-15: 70046, they were constructed of layers of highly burned clay with a smooth surface. The feature in square 45 was characterized by considerable thickness (ca. 35 cm) and had clearly been refurbished, with two smoothed surfaces one above the other. The presence of two sturdy ovens (KEX13-15: 70046; KEX14-16: 50015 and two hearths (KEX13-15: 80047) within the perimeter of the house distinguishes it from the first Vatya dwelling dating to phase 5. In the latter, only one hearth at floor level was discovered (KEX13-15: 12122, 12123); its structure was not unlike that of hearths KEX13-15: 80047. The two ovens and two hearths in the phase 8 house should be approached either as evidence of their distinct functions in the household, or an indication that the building was inhabited by a greater number of individuals. The floor in the younger Vatya house was preserved fragmentarily as a thicker layer of yellowish clay with no marks of exposure to fire (KEX13-15: 80054, KEX14-16: 80002). In general, it should be observed that the examined remnants demonstrated no structural differences across the whole range of floor fragments from various settlement phases. In each case, the floors were composed of thicker clay layers with no perceptible admixtures. history of the Bronze Age habitation 111 Fig. 23. KEX14-16: 60016A – seed deposit (photo: N. taylor). Fig. 24. Kakucs-turján: plan of phase 11. Kakucs phase 11 debris hearth pit post-depositional posthole filling refuse 112 0 Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor 1 2 3 4m Fig. 25. KEX14-16: 90019A – deposit of rims belonging to urn-shaped vessels and stones inside a Koszider period pit. (photo: M. Jaeger). Phase Kakucs 9 – Middle Bronze Age 2 (1861/1736-1862/1728 BC) Phase 9 is a reflection of the state following collapse of the already disused house (Fig. 19). In this section of the stratigraphic array a distinct debris horizon could be discerned covering the structural elements of the phase 8 house described above. The debris consisted of orange-coloured clay which had all been fired, albeit to a varied degree (layers KEX13-15: 50024, KEX14-15: 40003, 60007). No layer was detected that could have been interpreted as the potential remains of organic material utilized as a roof. In numerous instances, imprints of wooden structural elements were observed on pieces of daub. Finds of charred wood, though scant, confirm that such material was used to erect the walls. As previously noted, they were fairly small in diameter, indicating that wooden rods/stakes were employed (e.g. fragment C1/60114 found in layer KEX13-15: 50024). Also, daub recovered from that level showed numerous impressions of littoral plant species and common freshwater snails, which would suggest that the clay for the walls was obtained from bodies of water in the vicinity (probably from the nearby river). Moreover, the most extensive part of the debris, marked as KEX13-15: 50024, yielded clay finds characterized by a peculiar shape (Fig. 20). Specifically, there were two items (made from the same material as the rest of daub found in the debris) whose form resembled tiles: their edges had been carefully worked, while one side bore large, flat impressions, indicating that the elements adhered closely to some surface. Future detailed analyses encompassing the collection of daub from the site will, perhaps, shed light on the structural or architectural significance of particular fragments. More detailed insights into spatial organization of the house’s interior and its furnishings were gained thanks to the discovery of layer KEX14-16: 40003 in trench 2 (Fig. 21). The layer was primarily composed of clay (only partly fired) and daub, among which a relatively large quantity of charcoal was observed. Within the layer, three slightly damaged mugs were discovered in situ; interestingly enough, in addition to an item in the local Vatya style, two artefacts are copies of “foreign” forms which are typical of areas to the northeast (Füzesabony-Otomani style) and north-west (Únětice style) from the central Danube basin (cf. Staniuk, in print). history of the Bronze Age habitation 113 Fig. 26. Modelling of 14 C-dates from Kakucsturján. Calibration represents the highest probability range for stratigraphically identified phases (Bronk ramsey 2009). Feature KEX14-16: 40003 is interpreted as a remnant of a collapsed wall and a shelf standing next to it, or a similar piece of furnishing on which the vessels had originally been stored. It may be noted that such discoveries were made in only a few sites, such as the tell settlement of Túrkeve-Terehalom in Hungary (Csányi, Tárnoki 1992:162). Phase Kakucs 10 – Middle Bronze Age 3 (1860/1696-1859/1692 BC) In this stratigraphic section, researchers documented the last plane of terrain levelling, with no remnants of earlier buildings preserved (Fig. 22). A single seed deposit was documented within the levelling layer and used for radiocarbon dating of the levelling process (Fig. 23). 114 Phase Kakucs 11 – Middle Bronze Age 3 (1860/1680-1859/1660 BC) In the course of phase 11, the levelled terrain in the area under investigation witnessed settlement activity yet again (Fig. 24). This stage overlaps with the closing period of the MBA, i.e. the Koszider horizon. In both trench 1 and 2, investigations revealed characteristic deep pits which cut almost through the entire BA stratigraphy. Pits of that type, associated with late MBA settlements, are known from numerous Vatya culture sites (Mozsolics 1988:46; Jaeger 2016:77). Quite often, they are the only identified remains of the Koszider stages of settlement. At Kakucs-Turján, three particularly deep, “typical” Koszider pits (KEX13-15: 90059; KEX14-16: 30004, 30005) were Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor discovered along with two shallower ones (KEX13-15: 40005, KEX14-16: 30003). Feature KEX14-16: 90019A, one of the lowest filling levels, deserves particular attention, as several stones, daub pieces, and large neck pieces belonging to five different urn-shaped vessel rims were discovered in a characteristic arc-shaped arrangement at its base (Fig. 25). Apart from the abovementioned pits, there were other pieces of evidence suggesting the existence of dwelling struc- tures during the last settlement stage during the MBA. The most significant of those include fragmentarily preserved hearths (KEX13-15: 50030; KEX14-16: 30001, 40001) and isolated aggregations of daub (KEX13-15: 40010, 40012; KEX1416: 30001, 30007). The location of the features, however, does not allow reconstruction of the original layout of suspected buildings. This stratigraphic level suffered extensive damage, caused chiefly by modern tillage. 4. Absolute chronology Sampling for establishing a radiocarbon chronology of the site was carried out throughout the excavation campaigns. Despite the presence of numerous zooarchaeological finds encountered in the archaeological features it was decided to focus on the plant material, especially plant seeds recovered from closed contexts (Table 2). However, initial classification of features selected for 14C dating was modified during data processing. Originally, it was assumed that features dated represented the entire phasing of the site; only recently was it verified that solely the youngest phases (late MBA1MBA3) were dated. As such, the existing radiocarbon sequence represents the sequence starting with the destruction of the first house (Fig. 26). All radiocarbon dates were calibrated using OxCal 4.3 (Bronk Ramsay 2009). Examining the radiocarbon sequence for the whole area will be the subject of a separate study. The earliest dated material was related to phase 6; the context was the filling of pit KEX13-15: 12134 with two dates (Poz-88384 3515±35 and Poz-88386 3525±35) representing termini ad quem. Several ‘older’ ceramics were found inside the filling including Early Bronze Age 3 Nagyrév and Kisapostag sherds, which were extracted from the pit KEX13-15: 14168 cut by pit KEX13-15:12134. The infilling of the trench associated with phase 7 was dated based on the sample from feature KEX13-15: 10092 (Poz88388 3500±30), a discoloration possibly marking the final stage of the infilling and being a terminus ante quem. The dates used to determine the house duration (phase 8) were taken from the fill of a destroyed oven (Poz-88392 3490±30) representing a terminus post quem and a sample deposited on the floor of the house (Poz-88387 3435±35) which had to be deposited pre-infilling of the house. The dated samples for the destruction phase were taken from feature KEX13-15: 50024 found below the collapsed walls (Poz-88382 3455±30; Poz-88383 3475±35) – terminus ante quem - and within the debris of the collapsed house (Poz-61647 3425±30) – terminus post quem. Although the debris layers were recognised as stratigraphically contemporary, the temporal differences recognised in the radiocarbon dates could indicate that the collapse of the house was a relatively long process. Two features were used for dating phase 10: KEX13-15: 40008B (Poz-61645 3425±30) and KEX14-16: 60016A (Poz-88389 3435±30). The former came from the filling of a pit cutting through the lower spits of the general fill; an intrusive event during the levelling process. Feature KEX14-16: 60016A was a Lens culinaris deposit located inside the spit of the general fill – KEX14-16: 30006D – and is thus a terminus post quem. Two features were analysed for dating the final habitation (phase 11): KEX13-15: 40019 (Poz-61646 3445±30) and KEX13-15: 50030 (Poz-61649 3365±30). Feature 40019 was a concentration of burnt debris deposited after the former house area was completely levelled – terminus post quem. The radiocarbon date from feature KEX13-15: 50030 history of the Bronze Age habitation 115 – a hearth – represents the construction phase, since it was acquired from the base of the structure. The developed radiocarbon sequence proves that habitation of the settlement was already intensive during the 19th century BC and already characterised by well-established house structures and adjacent pathways. The earliest phase studied by means of the radiocarbon dates is associated with the destruction of the older MBA house and is evidenced by a number of pits cutting through floor levels. The destruction phase was followed by an infilling process, most likely indicating that the area was used for disposing of waste originating from nearby house structures. This process lasted for ca. 35 years, was finished around the mid-18th century BC, and was followed by the construction of a second house structure. The house structure seems to have been used for a period of ca. 30 years, as evidenced by the filling of the small, de- stroyed oven. The material found inside of the latter structure allows the identification of when the house ceased to be used. After its use phase, the second house underwent destruction and a third levelling phase similar to that between the first two houses. Again, this process had a duration of ca. 25 years. Afterwards the area was used for various settlement activities; however, none of them required the construction of large structures. Rather than demonstrating the construction of a new structure, the archaeological record underwent severe destruction as a result of the digging of three large pits. Evidence of occupation is provided by a hearth located outside the outline of an earlier house. The pottery corresponding to the final phase marks the Early Koszider phase (Vicze 2011), hence it would seem possible that the transition to the LBA in the Kakucs microregion was a process taking place already during the late 17th century BC. 5. Interpretation: The history and character of Bronze Age Kakucs-Turján The excavations discussed here were conducted on a relatively limited area of the former settlement. Their principal aim was to discover and document the remnants of the house which was well discernible on the map of magnetic anomalies. The employed non-invasive method demonstrated its limitations, in that the obtained image reflected the most recent state of preservation of the site, “flattening” some of the stratigraphically and chronologically distinct features. Consequently – as observed in the introduction – certain settlement phases were decipherable only as minor fragments, precluding conclusive identification with respect to functional or architectural characteristics. Despite such difficulties, the findings from Kakucs-Turján do enable one to draw certain conclusions regarding the dynamics of settlement phases at the site and their types. First and foremost, one cannot fail to notice that the site is multi-layered. Such a designation, used instead of “tell settlement”, is intended to underscore: 116 a) the lack of unique topographic form of the site, suggesting settlement which was less intense and proceeded differently (see point b) than was the case with other proper tell sites known from Hungary (e.g. Tószeg-Laposhalom and JászdózsaKápolnahalom; Bóna 1992; Stanczik, Tárnoki 1992), which were associated primarily with the Hatvan/Füzesabony-Otomani settlement sequence; b) the lack of long-term, certain continuity of settlement, understood as consecutive construction of a larger number of buildings in the same locations, resulting from premeditated decisions and intentional actions of the inhabitants such as the deliberate burning of an older building in order to make space for new ones. In the explored stratigraphic sequence, direct succession and construction of buildings in the same location can only be observed in the case of both Vatya houses (phases 5 and 8). Although traces of specific events were identified between remnants dating to both phases, one can speak Mateusz Jaeger, robert Staniuk, Johannes Müller, Gabriella Kulcsár, Nicole taylor of settlement continuing in a highly similar form, and according to much the same valuation of space. The minor chronological interval separating periods in which both houses functioned – as suggested by 14 C dating – makes this conjecture even more viable. Due to fragmentary preservation, it cannot be established at present whether the building identified in the phase 3 strata (turn of the EBA and MBA) marked the beginning of stable residential development in the area and, if it did, how this development proceeded. Determination of such an onset point seems indispensable for further studies given that the observed method of ordering space, i.e. constructing closely situated dwellings divided by “streets,” was implemented by the MBA inhabitants at least twice, denoting acceptance of a particular order and the will to uphold it, not only with respect to space but also in the domain of social relationships. In the period preceding the emergence of MBA-dated houses in Kakucs-Turján, the area of the site was used in a different fashion. The earliest traces of EBA settlement include pits which were used both for storage purposes and as disposal facilities for post-consumption waste. The number of pits discovered in a relatively small space suggests intensive activity on the part of in- habitants, though it would seem that it did not involve the need to construct buildings which would last (or at least leave more permanent archaeological traces). The late MBA saw another change in space management at the site. The Koszider settlement phase at Kakucs-Turján left not only characteristic deep pits, known from other Vatya sites, but also fragmentarily preserved features indicating that stable dwelling structures such as houses in fact existed there at the time. However, modern tillage has caused extensive damage to the Koszider layers, making full reconstruction of the development impossible. The information cited clearly demonstrates that Kakucs-Turján witnessed settlement over a period of several hundred years. The permanent human presence in the area of the site should not automatically be treated as proof of direct relationships between successive generations inhabiting Kakucs-Turján and continuity of their culture. On the contrary, it would appear that the changes in how space was organized and utilized point to dynamic spatial management. Clearly, local continuity – otherwise sustained in particular periods – was nevertheless subject to occasional interruptions. Hiatuses aside, we believe that long-standing settlement at Kakucs-Turján did not owe solely to the Table 2. List of radiocarbon samples and their absolute age. Lab no. Date BP Poz-61645 3425±30 Poz-61646 Sample material δ13C Feature no. Func�on Phase Lens culinaris -19,9 KEX13-15: 40008B pit with debris concentra�on Kakucs 10 3445±30 Lens culinaris -17,8 KEX13-15: 40019 concentra�on of burnt debris Kakucs 11 Poz_61647 3425±30 Tri�cum monococcum -17,9 KEX13-15: 50024 debris Kakucs 9 Poz-61649 3365±30 Tri�cum monococcum -20 KEX13-15: 50030 hearth Kakucs 11 Poz-88382 3455±30 Tri�cum monococcum -28,6 KEX14-16: 60033 collapsed wall Kakucs 9 Poz-88383 3475±35 Lens culinaris -24,6 KEX14-16: 60033 collapsed wall Kakucs 9 Poz-88384 3515±35 Tri�cum monococcum -29,2 KEX14-16: 12134 pit Kakucs 6 Poz-88386 3525±35 Lens culinaris -23,6 KEX14-16: 12134 pit Kakucs 6 Poz-88387 3435±35 Tri�cum monococcum -23,9 KEX13-15: 70038 floor Kakucs 8 Poz-88388 3500±30 Tri�cum monococcum -25 KEX13-15: 10092 fill Kakucs 7 Poz-88389 3435±35 Lens culinaris -22,5 KEX14-16: 60016A seed deposit Kakucs 10 Poz-88392 3490±30 Lens culinaris -20,8 KEX14-16: 50015 oven Kakucs 8 history of the Bronze Age habitation 117 potential attractiveness of natural conditions or strategic location. Next to economic and environmental considerations, cultural factors must have played a crucial role. It seems that it was considered important to endure in places which had a connection with the past, which might have had names, aroused emotions and occupied a specific place in the mental landscape (Fontijn 2002:154, 259; Jaeger 2012:155). Repeated returns to a particular location were associated with an awareness of a past with which a locality was imbued (Chapman 1997:143). This awareness may have been engendered by rem- nants of earlier settlement which continued to be visible on the surface (e.g. ruins of buildings, signs of cultivation, unfilled ditches) and by objects found in the soil during household- and farm-related work or construction, such as pottery items or their fragments. For instance, MBA layers in trench 1 contained several larger sherds of a bell beaker, which bore traces of modification enabling further usage after the handle had been broken off (hole for threading a cord; cf. Staniuk, in print). In the 2nd millennium BC, a vessel of that type must have been recognized as an object from the past and with a past. References BÓNA I. 1992 Tószeg-Laposhalom, in: Meier-Arendt W. (ed.): Bronzezeit in Ungarn. Forschungen in Tell-Siedlungen an Donau und Theiss. Frankfurt am Main, 101-114. BRONK RAMSEY C. 2009 Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 51 (1), 337-360. CHAPMAN J. 1997 The origins of tells in eastern Hungary, in: Topping P. (ed.): Neolithic landscapes. Oxford, 139-164. CSÁNYI M., STANCZIK I. 1992 Túrkeve-Terehalom, in: Meier-Arendt W. (ed.): Bronzezeit in Ungarn. Forschungen in Tell-Siedlungen an Donau und Theiss. Frankfurt am Main, 159-165. FISCHL K. P., KISS V., KULCSÁR G., SZEVERÉNYI V. 2015 Old and new narratives for Hungary around 2200 BC, in Meller H., Arz H., Jung R., Risch R. (eds): 2200 BC – Ein Klimasturz als Ursache für den Zerfall der Alten Welt? 2200 BC – A climatic breakdown as a cause for the collapse of the old world? 7. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 23. bis 26. Oktober 2o14 in Halle (Saale). Halle (Saale), 503-523. FONTIJN D. 2002 Sacrificial Landscapes: Cultural Biographies of Things, Objects and ‘Natural Places’ in the Bronze Age of the Southern Netherlands, C. 2300-600 BC. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 33, 34. JAEGER M. 2012 The Relationship Between Man and Environment in the Current Stage of Research of Fortified Settlements in the Carpathian Basin in the First Half of the 2nd Millenium BC, in: Hildebrandt-Radke I., Czebreszuk J., Dörfler W., Müller J. (eds): Anthropogenic Pressure in the Neolithic and Bronze Age in the Central-European Lowlands. Poznań/Bonn, 149-159. 2016 Bronze Age Fortified Settlements in Central Europe. Poznań/Bonn. MOZSOLICS A. 1988 Der Bronzefund aus der oberen Remete-Höhle. Acta Archaeologica Hungaricae 40, 27-64. STANCZIK I., TÁRNOKI J. 1992 Jászdózsa-Kápolnahalom, in: Meier-Arendt W. (ed.): Bronzezeit in Ungarn. Forschungen in Tell-Siedlungen an Donau und Theiss. Frankfurt am Main, 120-127. STANIUK R. In press The world within a household - KakucsTurján mögött and the interrelatedness of Middle Bronze Age pottery, in: Rezi B., Németh R. E. (eds.): Bronze Age Connectivity in the Carpathian Basin. Proceedings of the International Colloquium from Târgu Mureş, 13-15 October 2016. Târgu Mureş.