An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Chapter Twelve An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies Eamonn P. Kelly Abstract In 2003, the discovery in Irish peat bogs of two well-preserved Iron Age bodies provided an opportunity to undertake detailed scientific analysis with a view to understanding how, when, and why the two young male victims were killed and their bodies consigned to the bogs. Research also looked at other Iron Age objects deposited ritually in peat bogs, including other bog bodies. The locations at which the bodies were discovered were researched and a wealth of historical, folklore, and mythological material was consulted to assist interpretation of the finds. A theory was developed that appears to explain not only the ritual killings in question but also the deposition of bog bodies and other objects in peat bogs in proximity to significant territorial boundaries. The theory links the bog bodies with kingship and sovereignty rituals during the Iron Age. A t the end of the last Ice Age, melt water from retreating ice sheets left the Central Plain of Ireland strewn with shallow lakes that, in time, developed into large expanses of raised bog. Following the removal of most of the country’s woodlands in the seventeenth century, peat from the bogs became an important source of fuel and over the next few centuries, peat cutters encountered many archaeological objects lost in the bogs or deposited deliberately in former times. Bog finds have included weapons, personal ornaments, horse harness, yokes, ploughs, quern stones, feasting equipment, large lumps of butter, and occasionally human remains. A number of these are on display at the National Museum of Ireland, Dublin. Bog bodies are rare survivals from earlier times. While many survive merely as skeletons, the preservative properties of bogs means that in exceptional cases the bodies are in spectacular condition with hair, skin, hands, internal organs, and other soft tissue preserved (Turner and Scaife 1995). Such discoveries make it possible literally to come face-to-face with a person who lived millennia ago and to view their features, see how they 232 Chapter12.indd 232 21/09/12 6:47 PM An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies 233 styled their hair, and wore their clothing. It is also possible to find out what they ate; what diseases they may have suffered in life; and the manner of their deaths. The remains of more than 100 men, women, and children, dating to a variety of periods, have been found in Irish bogs, representing accidental deaths as well as formal interment and more casual disposal. Finds of Iron Age date are of a rather more sinister nature and what characterizes them and sets them apart from other bog bodies is the fact that they represent ritual killings. Similar finds elsewhere demonstrate that the Irish Iron Age finds form part of a broader Northwestern European cultural tradition, with well-known examples from Tollund, Denmark (Glob 1969), Lindow Moss, England (Stead et al. 1986), and Yde, Holland (van der Sanden 1996). Tacitus (Germania XII) notes how victims of execution were staked down in bogs, with no mention made of sacrificial ritual (Green 1998:179). However, the Irish evidence clearly favors the interpretation that the victims were the subjects of ritual killings, not execution. Despite the numbers of bog bodies found in Ireland, the discovery of well-preserved ancient remains is a relatively rare occurrence, so it was with considerable surprise that the National Museum learned in the spring and early summer of 2003 of two remarkable new discoveries. This paper provides an overview of the detailed investigations into these two individuals as well as other recent Irish bog body finds from other periods. A detailed analysis is being prepared as part of a larger review of all the dated Irish Iron Age bog bodies and their European background. (Working title: The Irish Bog Bodies Project, edited by E. P. Kelly and I. Mulhall, Forthcoming). In the debris of a peat-screening machine at peat extraction works in Ballivor (Co. Meath) workers discovered the preserved body of a young man (Figure 12.1). Investigation indicated that the body had lain originally in a deep bog at Clonycavan on the figure 12.1 Clonycavan Man, Co. Meath found in the debris of a peat-screening machine in February 2003. Chapter12.indd 233 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 21/09/12 6:47 PM 234 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Sanctified Violence county border between Meath and Westmeath. Although damaged from the waist down due to the action of a peat-harvesting machine, the internal organs were preserved partially. The head was intact with a clearly distinguishable face and a very distinctive hairstyle (Figure 12.2). On the back of the head the hair was cut to about 2.5 cm long with the rest of the hair, which was about 20 cm long, gathered into a bundle on the top of his head. Later analysis revealed that the hair had been held in place by the application of a sort of hair gel made from resin imported from France or Spain (Kelly 2006a). By contrast with Clonycavan Man, who was of slight build and diminutive stature, a second body found a few months later at Oldcroghan (Co. Offaly) was a tall and powerfully built man (Figure 12.3). Uncovered during the digging of a bog drain, the remains consist of a severed torso that had been decapitated in antiquity; however the surviving part of the body was in remarkable condition with superbly preserved hands (Figure 12.4) and internal organs still intact. On the left arm was a plaited leather armband with metal mounts decorated with designs in the Celtic La Tène style (Figure 12.5). The National Museum enlisted the expertise of an international team of specialists who undertook detailed analysis of both bodies. A wide variety of analyses was carried out including CT and MRI scanning, paleo-dietary analysis, fingerprinting, histological analysis, pathological assessment, facial reconstruction, and so on. Radiocarbon dating indicated that Clonycavan Man lived during the period 392–201 B.C. while Oldcroghan Man produced a date range of 362–175 B.C. The presence of expensive imported resin in Chapter12.indd 234 figure 12.2 The head of Clonycavan Man was intact with a clearly distinguishable face and a very distinctive hairstyle. 21/09/12 6:47 PM An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies 235 figure 12.3 Oldcroghan, Co. Offaly was found during the digging of a bog drain in May 2003. figure 12.4 Oldcroghan Man had superbly preserved hands. the hair of Clonycavan Man indicated that he was a high-status person. This also seemed to be the case with Oldcroghan Man, who had carefully manicured fingernails and an absence of wear to his hands indicative of a person who did not engage in heavy manual work. Scientific analysis of the chemical constituents of the hair and fingernails provided information on the diets of the two men in the months preceding their deaths. Clonycavan Man had a plant-based diet for four months prior to his death, suggesting that he may have died during the autumn before the onset of a meat-rich winter diet. By contrast, Oldcroghan Chapter12.indd 235 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 21/09/12 6:47 PM 236 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Sanctified Violence figure 12.5 On the left arm Oldcroghan Man wore a plaited leather armband with metal mounts decorated in the Celtic La Tène style. Man may have died in the winter or early spring, as he ate a diet with a substantial meat component during the four months prior to his death. A pathological examination revealed that Clonycavan Man was killed by a series of blows to his head and chest, from a heavy, edged weapon, probably an axe. He also suffered a 40 cm long cut to his abdomen suggesting disembowelment. A stab wound to the chest killed Oldcroghan Man; however a defense-wound on the upper left arm indicates that he tried to fend off the fatal assault. The deceased was then decapitated and his thorax severed from his abdomen. Like Clonycavan Man, Oldcroghan Man had his nipples cut partially but whether this was done before or after death is unknown (Figure 12.6). Examination revealed that withies had been inserted through cuts made in the upper arms of Oldcroghan Man (Figure 12.7) and may be the remains of a spancel (a type of animal hobble). There is a rich history and folklore associated with spancels, which appear to have had magical qualities that protected boundaries. This may have arisen from the Chapter12.indd 236 21/09/12 6:47 PM An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies 237 figure 12.6 Oldcroghan Man had his nipples partially cut, but whether this was done before death is unknown. use of spancels to hobble animals, which would have made it difficult to run them off in a raid. Spancels were also used when milking cattle, which led to associations with fertility and fecundity. A withy hoop found around the neck of an Iron Age bog body found in the nineteenth century at Gallagh (Co. Galway) may also be the remains of a spancel. In Ireland, modern boundaries may have a remarkable antiquity; in many instances barony boundaries appear to coincide with ancient tribal boundaries. It was noted that both Oldcroghan Man and Clonycavan Man were located on significant boundaries, which prompted an important new line of research. In addition to Oldcroghan Man and Clonycavan Man, five other dated Irish finds of Iron Age bog bodies were found on significant boundaries, with up to forty likely Iron Age bog bodies that appear to fit the same pattern (Kelly 2006b). Some of the finds consisted only of body parts such as decapitated heads and severed limbs suggesting that some bodies, like that of Oldcroghan Man, were dismembered for interment at a number of different places along tribal boundaries. Until further systematic research has been undertaken it will not be possible to state whether there is also a correlation between the locations of the British and continental bog bodies and ancient boundaries. The deposition of bodies along boundaries might be interpreted as having a protective function, and while this may have been partly the case, a range of other Iron Age material uncovered along boundaries suggests that one is dealing primarily with sovereignty rituals associated with sacral kingship and kingly inauguration (Kelly 2006b). In the pagan era, Chapter12.indd 237 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 21/09/12 6:47 PM 238 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Sanctified Violence figure 12.7 Withies inserted through cuts made in the upper arms of Oldcroghan Man may be the remains of a spancel. as part of the king’s sacred marriage to the territorial earth goddess, it would appear that objects associated with inauguration rituals were buried on tribal boundaries as a statement and definition of the king’s sovereignty. The presence of items such as harnesses, yokes, and parts of wheeled vehicles suggest that candidates for kingship rode in procession to the place of inauguration (Kelly 2006b). Feasting was an integral part of inauguration ceremonies, as indicated by the presence of cauldrons and drinking vessels, and horned headdresses, collars, torcs, armlets, pins, and fibulae provide evidence of the nature of kingly regalia. The votive deposition of bog butter, quern stones, plough parts, and, in one instance, a sickle are all reminders that a central function of the marriage of the king to the earth goddess was to ensure the fertility of the land and the well-being of the people; all of whom were dependant for survival on reliable yields of corn, milk, and milk products. These finds may also give an important context to the final meal of Oldcroghan Man, which consisted of cereals and buttermilk. There is a rich body of Irish historical and mythological material that can provide insights into the bog body phenomenon. One explanation is that the ritual deaths of bog bodies represent offerings made at times of famine or disease. In an Irish context, the consort of the goddess was the king, and when famine or plague indicated that she had withdrawn her benevolence, it was he who bore the responsibility. The king’s failure to ensure the continued goodwill of the goddess meant that he might be obliged to pay the ultimate price. Chapter12.indd 238 21/09/12 6:48 PM An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies 239 Dalton (1970) proposed that, once every seven years, the kings of Tara faced the prospect of a ritual death, although the king might save his life by abdicating or by providing a substitute sacrifice. The Annals of the Four Masters record that Slanoll, a King of Tara during the pagan era, died in mysterious circumstances at Tara. On becoming king forty years later, Oilill, son of Slanoll, had his father’s body disinterred and the body was found to be preserved and free from corruption. This suggests that the king may have been buried in peat; in other words, Slanoll, King of Tara, is very likely to have been a bog body. Oldcroghan Man and Clonycavan Man may have been deposed kings, as is implied by the fact that their nipples were cut, thus rendering them ineligible for kingship. This is because the suckling of a king’s nipples was an important gesture of submission by subordinates, and the stylized representation of breasts and nipples on the terminals of gold gorgets indicates that this was a custom that extended as far back as the Late Bronze Age at least (Figure 12.8). There are other references in early written sources that link human sacrifice to the god Crom Dubh, who is associated with Lughnasa, the Celtic harvest festival. The rich field of research prompted by the discovery of Oldcroghan Man and Clonycavan Man is ongoing and many further important discoveries may lie in store. Based on the research to date, a special exhibition entitled “Kingship and Sacrifice” is currently figure 12.8 Stylized representations of breasts and nipples occur on the terminals of Late Bronze Age gold gorgets that were worn on the breast. Chapter12.indd 239 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 21/09/12 6:48 PM 240 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Sanctified Violence on display in the National Museum, Kildare Street, Dublin. This exhibition contains four bog bodies including the finds from Clonycavan and Oldcroghan. Also on display are other finds from bogs that help to provide insights into the rituals involved in the sacrifice of the men entombed in the bogs. References Cited Bermingham, N., and M. Delaney 2006 The Bog Body From Tumbeagh. Wordwell, Bray. Dalton, G. F. 1970 The Ritual Killing of the Irish Kings. Folklore 81:1–21. Glob, Peter Vilhelm 1969 The Bog People. Faber and Faber, London. Green, Miranda 1998 Humans as Ritual Victims in the Later Prehistory of Western Europe. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 17(2):169–179. Kelly, Eamonn P. 2006a Bog Bodies—Kingship and Sacrifice. Scéal na Móna 13(60):57–59. Kelly, Eamonn P. 2006b Kingship and Sacrifice: Iron Age Bog Bodies and Boundaries. Archaeology Ireland, Heritage Guide, No. 35. Wordwell, Bray. Turner, R. C., and R. G. Scaife (editors) 1995 Bog Bodies: New Discoveries and New Perspectives. British Museum Press, London. Stead, I. M., J. B. Bourke, and Don Brothwell (editors) 1986 Lindow Man: The Body in the Bog. British Museum Publications, London. van der Sanden, Wijnand 1996 Through Nature to Eternity: the Bog Bodies of Northwest Europe, translated by Susan J. Mellor. Batavian Lion International, Amsterdam. Chapter12.indd 240 21/09/12 6:48 PM